A Tribute to Max Planck on His 167th Birth Anniversary: Architect of the Quantum Age

 

Max Planck, a visionary German physicist whose revolutionary quantum theory laid the foundation for modern physics and transformed our world, was born on this day, 23 April, in 1858, and today we mark his 167^th birth anniversary. Interestingly, the AI of Facebook reminded me of one of my Facebook posts that I had written on 14 December 2023, to commemorate a historic day when the groundbreaking Quantum Theory was firmly established by Max Planck in 1900. Here is the link to this post on my Blog, which has motivated me to add on to the blog and pen this article

 https://khened.blogspot.com/2023/12/december-14-max-plancks-quantum-theory.html

It is befitting that we pay a special tribute to Max Planck on his birthday this year, 2025, since the year 2025 is special, for it is commemorated as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQ), marking 100 years of the development of quantum mechanics. In 1925, quantum mechanics was formally developed by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan. Heisenberg, building on earlier work, published his "Umdeutung" paper in 1925, reinterpreting quantum theory. Born and Jordan then collaborated with Heisenberg to develop matrix mechanics, a complete and consistent mathematical framework for quantum mechanics. Recognizing the importance of quantum science and demand from several scientific bodies from across the world, on June 7, 2024, the United Nations proclaimed 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQ). According to the proclamation, a year-long, worldwide initiative will “be observed through activities at all levels aimed at increasing public awareness of the importance of quantum science and applications.”

I am therefore honoured to be reminded by AI of Facebook about my post, which has motivated me to pen this article as a contribution to IYQ to honour not only Planck’s scientific genius but also his resilience through profound personal tragedies during the World Wars and the enduring legacy of the Max Planck Society, which continues to advance science in his name. This tribute reflects on Planck’s monumental contributions and the indomitable spirit that defined his life.

A Scholar Born Ahead of His Time

Max Planck was born into a distinguished academic family on 23 April 1858 in Kiel, Germany. His father was a professor of law, and intellectual inquiry was deeply rooted in the Planck household. A gifted child, Planck excelled in music and mathematics. Despite early uncertainty between pursuing music or science, he chose physics—a field that he was destined to reshape permanently. Planck enrolled at the University of Munich at the age of 16 and later attended the University of Berlin, where he studied under some of the finest minds of the time, including Gustav Kirchhoff, known famously to engineers for Kirchhoff’s laws governing electrical circuits. Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, a German physicist, formulated these laws in 1845. These laws, specifically Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL), are fundamental to circuit analysis.  The formative years of Planck were shaped by his scientific ethos: rigorous, methodical, and grounded in deep philosophical inquiry.

By the age of 21, Planck earned his doctorate with a thesis on the second law of thermodynamics—a contemporary subject of great importance during those days, which would remain central to his later work. He became a professor at Kiel and then at Berlin, where he mentored and collaborated with the great physicists of the time, including the legendary Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr.

A Personal Life Marked by War and Tragedy

While his professional life soared with scientific triumphs, Planck’s personal life was marred by profound tragedy with personal losses. During World War I, His first wife, Marie Merck, died in 1909. He lost two sons, Karl and Ernst, who perished in combat during World War I, and his daughter died in childbirth. The devastation continued in World War II when his son Erwin was executed by the Nazis in 1945 for his alleged involvement in the July 20 plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. These tragedies, compounded by the destruction of his home in Berlin during Allied bombings, tested Planck’s resilience. Yet, even in the face of such adversity, he remained committed to science, embodying a spirit of perseverance that continues to inspire.

Planck’s experiences during the wars also shaped his humanistic outlook. As a prominent scientist in Germany, he navigated the moral complexities of working under the Nazi regime, advocating for scientific integrity and protecting Jewish colleagues where possible. His ability to endure personal and societal turmoil while advancing human knowledge underscores the depth of his character.

The Birth of Quantum Mechanics

Max Planck’s journey to scientific immortality began with a problem that confounded classical physics: the blackbody radiation spectrum. In the late 19th century, classical theories, grounded in Newtonian determinism, failed to explain why heated objects emitted energy in specific patterns. Planck, a professor at the University of Berlin, tackled this enigma with bold innovation. On October 19, 1900, he presented preliminary ideas about quantized energy—energy emitted or absorbed in discrete packets, or “quanta”—to the German Physical Society. Initially calling it a “lucky guess,” Planck refined his hypothesis and, on December 14, 1900, delivered a comprehensive quantum theory before the same society in Berlin. This historic moment, attended by distinguished physicists, marked the birth of quantum mechanics.

Planck’s 1901 paper, published in Annalen der Physik under the title “On the Law of the Energy Distribution in the Normal Spectrum,” formalized his theory. By proposing that energy was quantized rather than continuous, Planck challenged centuries-old assumptions of classical physics. This radical departure introduced a probabilistic worldview, where particle behaviour at atomic and subatomic levels defied predictability. His work resolved the blackbody radiation puzzle and earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918 “for his discovery of energy quanta.”

A Scientific Revolution

Planck’s quantum theory catalysed a scientific revolution, inspiring pioneers like Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, and Paul Dirac to explore the microscopic world. Bohr’s atomic model, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics built on Planck’s foundation, shaping modern physics. Even Albert Einstein, initially sceptical of quantum mechanics’ probabilistic nature, used Planck’s quanta to explain the photoelectric effect, earning the 1921 Nobel Prize. The Einstein-Bohr debates, sparked by Planck’s work, remain legendary, underscoring the profound shift from classical to quantum paradigms.

Beyond physics, Planck’s ideas transformed technology. His quantum principles underpinned the development of semiconductors, leading to the invention of the transistor and integrated circuits. These innovations, pioneered by companies like Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel, fuelled Silicon Valley’s rise and the digital age. From microprocessors to smartphones, Planck’s legacy powers modern devices. Fiber-optic communications, lasers, and emerging quantum computing technologies also owe their existence to his work, enabling the interconnected, data-driven world of today.

The Max Planck Society: A Living Legacy

In Planck’s honour, the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science, founded in 1948, stands as a testament to his enduring influence. Headquartered in Munich, the society operates over 80 research institutes worldwide, fostering cutting-edge discoveries in physics, biology, chemistry, and beyond. The Max Planck Society has been a beacon of scientific excellence, with numerous affiliated scientists receiving Nobel Prizes. Notably, in 2023, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, and Anne L’Huillier for their work on attosecond pulses of light, with Krausz’s contributions tied to the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics. This achievement, among others, reflects the society’s commitment to advancing Planck’s quantum legacy.

The Max Planck Society’s work aligns with the goals of the International Year of Quantum Mechanics in 2025, which celebrates a century since the formulation of matrix mechanics by Heisenberg and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics, both rooted in Planck’s quantum theory. UNESCO and global scientific organizations have endorsed this initiative to highlight quantum mechanics’ role in addressing modern challenges, from quantum computing to sustainable energy. Recent coverage in The Guardian and Nature notes that the society is hosting symposia, exhibitions, and public lectures in 2025 to honour Planck, emphasizing his contributions to science and society.

The International Year of Quantum Mechanics

The designation of 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Mechanics underscores the relevance of Planck’s work. Quantum technologies, from cryptography to medical imaging, are poised to revolutionize the 21st century. Planck’s quantum principles enable quantum computers to tackle complex problems, enhance secure communications, and drive innovations in artificial intelligence. His legacy resonates in every quantum leap, from laboratory breakthroughs to practical applications that shape our future.

Moore’s Law, Its Limits, and the Quantum Leap Forward

Since the 1960s, Moore’s Law—coined by Gordon Moore—predicted that the number of transistors on a chip would double approximately every two years, exponentially increasing computing power. This empirical observation has powered the semiconductor industry and the digital revolution for decades. However, as transistor sizes approach atomic scales, physical limits to miniaturization are being reached. The laws of classical physics can no longer sustain further shrinkage, and quantum effects, once considered noise, become dominant.

This is where quantum computing steps in—not as a mere extension of Moore’s Law but as a paradigm shift. Harnessing the principles of superposition, entanglement, and quantum tunnelling, quantum computers offer the promise of solving problems beyond the reach of even the most powerful classical supercomputers. Incidentally, Moore’s law has just completed its 50 years, and on this occasion, I paid my tribute on my blog, whose link is given below

https://khened.blogspot.com/2023/03/eulogy-for-gordon-moore.html

 

Recent breakthroughs—such as IBM’s Condor processor, Google’s Sycamore, and research by companies like D-Wave, Intel, Rigetti, and others—are pointing toward practical, scalable quantum computing. In 2024–2025, researchers have made strides in quantum error correction, photonic qubits, and cryogenic chip integration, potentially heralding a new age of post-silicon computing. Planck’s world of quantized energy, once confined to academic papers, is now embedded in our pursuit of quantum supremacy, quantum networks, and even quantum AI, paving the way for next-generation chip design that transcends the limits of Moore’s Law.

Planck’s Eternal Legacy

Planck, touched by his tragic losses, was not a flamboyant showman of science; he was a humble scholar, moved by the quiet pursuit of truth. Yet, his ideas sparked a chain reaction that continues to shape our lives, from the birth of the digital age to the dawn of the quantum era. Therefore, it is no wonder that institutions worldwide bear his name—the Max Planck Society remains a powerhouse of fundamental research. The units that describe the universe’s smallest scales—Planck time, Planck length, Planck energy—are universal constants of nature. And his influence is embedded in every laser, semiconductor, transistor, and qubit that defines our modern world.

In Closing: The Architect of the Quantum World

In 2025, as we stand at the convergence of classical limits and quantum possibilities, we owe a timeless debt to Max Planck—a man who believed in the truth of equations, even when they defied everything he knew. His journey—from Kiel to Berlin, from blackbody radiation to the bedrock of modern physics—is not just the story of a scientist, but of science itself: forever curious, sometimes reluctant, but always transformative.

As we celebrate Planck’s 167th birth anniversary, let us reflect on his contributions and the promise of quantum mechanics. December 14, 1900, marked the “cosmic birth” of quantum mechanics, but April 23, 2025, honours the man who made it possible. It is believed that in the years and decades ahead, quantum technologies are destined to bring about transformational changes. Let us therefore draw inspiration from Planck’s legacy of discovery and resilience. In eternal tribute to Max Planck, the architect of the quantum age, we salute a legacy that transcends time and transforms our world.

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19 April 2025: Commemorating the Golden Jubilee of Aryabhata: India’s First Step into the Space

Today, April 19, 2025, India celebrates the 50th anniversary of a monumental milestone in its scientific journey—the launch of the Aryabhata, India’s first satellite. Named after the 5th-century Indian mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata satellite was more than a technological triumph; it was a bold declaration of India’s aspirations in the global space, a dream which the founding father of Indian space program, Dr Vikram Sarabhai had dreamt. Launched on April 19, 1975, from the Kapustin Yar rocket launch station (cosmodrome) in the Soviet Union, Aryabhata marked India’s entry into the elite club of space-faring nations. This article commemorates the historic achievement, reflecting on its origins, the geopolitical context, the visionary leadership, and the enduring legacy that continues to inspire India’s space odyssey, as ISRO continues to scale new heights. 

The Genesis of a Dream 

The story of Indian space program including Aryabhata is rooted in the vision of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the father of India’s space program. Sarabhai dreamed of harnessing space technology for national development, envisioning satellites for communication, remote sensing, and scientific exploration. Aryabhata was one of three ambitious projects Sarabhai championed, alongside rocket development – space launch vehicle (SLV) and Satellite Instruction Television Experiment (SITE) program. 

In the late 1960s, as the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) took shape, Dr Sarabhai had tasked a young scientist, Prof. Udupi Ramachandra Rao, with leading the satellite program. Rao, who had worked on NASA projects, brought expertise and ambition to the task, setting the stage for a remarkable endeavour. This was a time when the geopolitical relation between the two communist nations and the erstwhile comrades - China and USSR - had gone very sour due to their intractable ideological differences between Marxism & Leninism. The two leaders of China and Soviet Union, Mao Zedong and Nikita Khrushchev were strong advocates of two different forms of communism. Mao Zedong denounced the communism practiced by USSR and blamed Khrushchev as practitioner of the work of revisionist traitors. It was this animosity between the two warring comrades that, in a way, helped India launch its first satellite - Aryabhata. 

Initially, ISRO had plans to design a 100-kg satellite for launch on an American Scout rocket, which was seen as a reliable and affordable option. However, the Cold War’s geopolitical currents reshaped the project’s trajectory. In 1971, India’s ambassador in Moscow, DP Dhar, relayed an offer from the Soviet Academy of Sciences to launch an Indian satellite for free. The Soviet Union, wary of India’s potential collaboration with the United States and eager to outshine its rival, China, saw an opportunity to strengthen ties with India while scoring a propaganda victory against China. 

On 24th of April, 1970 the People’s Republic of China became the fifth nation to successfully place a satellite in to earth’s orbit. The Chinese satellite was flown purely for propaganda purpose, using a tune generator to play the 'East is Red' patriotic anthem. The Chinese satellite weighed 173 kilograms. The Chinese propaganda and their rejoicing of the success of their satellite launch and pretending to rub shoulders with the Soviet Union (USSR) prompted the USSR to nudge the Indian Ambassador Mr DP Dhar to inform Mrs Indira Gandhi of the intent of USSR to support India launch an Indian satellite.

India was still in its infancy stage in space technology, when the Russians offered to piggy back an Indian satellite on their rocket. By then Prof UR Rao (who later went on to become the satellite man of India) had already started preparing a consolidated plan for the launch of Indian satellite. Unfortunately, Dr Sarabhai died prematurely on 31st December 1971. However, at the behest of Prof MGK Menon, who was then the Director TIFR - who was also tasked to temporarily take additional charge of the Indian Space Research Origination – Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi invited Prof Satish Dhawan, who was on a sabbatical to Caltech from IISc, to return back to India and mantle the role of head of ISRO. Mrs Gandhi even agreed to the two conditions put forth by Prof Dhawan that he will continue to be the Director of IISc and will hold additional charge of ISRO and that the headquarters of ISRO is to be located in Bangalore. Mrs Gandhi agreed to the conditions of Prof Dhawan. 

The Russian condition to India was clear: The Indian satellite had to outweigh China’s Dong Fang Hong I, launched in 1970 at 173 kg, to ensure the Soviets could claim superiority in supporting a developing nation’s space ambitions. This geopolitical manoeuvre, born of Cold War rivalries between the USSR and China, transformed Aryabhata into a 360-kg spacecraft, a testament to both scientific ingenuity and strategic diplomacy. 

The Making of Aryabhata 

The development of Aryabhata was a saga of resilience and resourcefulness. With a budget of Rs. 3 crore approved by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, ISRO set up operations in Peenya, an industrial area on the outskirts of Bangalore. Four asbestos-roofed sheds, each 5,000 square feet, were transformed into sophisticated laboratories, complete with a clean room, thermovac chamber, and electronics facilities. Under the leadership of Prof. U.R. Rao, a 150-member team of young engineers and scientists, many fresh graduates, worked tirelessly to build a satellite from scratch. The choice of Bangalore, supported by Karnataka’s Industries Secretary Satish Chandran, leveraged the city’s proximity to industries like Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, fostering a conducive environment for innovation. 

The satellite’s design was ambitious: a 26-sided polyhedron, 1.4 meters in diameter, covered with solar cells generating 46 watts of power, supported by a nickel-cadmium battery. Aryabhata carried three scientific payloads for X-ray astronomy, solar physics, and ionospheric studies, developed with contributions from institutions like the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and the Physical Research Laboratory. Despite procurement challenges, a team led by Rao sourced components from Europe and the US, bypassing bureaucratic hurdles to meet deadlines. 

Although the project faced setbacks, including the sudden death of Vikram Sarabhai in December 1971, which briefly halted progress. Prof. Satish Dhawan, who succeeded Sarabhai, provided steady leadership, while Prof. M.G.K. Menon, as interim chairman, secured government funding. A notable anecdote involves the satellite’s naming. In early 1975, the team proposed three names to Indira Gandhi: Aryabhata, honouring the ancient astronomer; Maitri, symbolizing Indo-Soviet friendship; and Jawahar, for obvious reasons to honour the founding PM of India. Mrs. Gandhi chose Aryabhata, a nod to India’s scientific heritage. 

The Launch and Its Impact 

On April 19, 1975, at 7:30 GMT, a Soviet Kosmos-3M rocket roared into the sky from Kapustin Yar, carrying Aryabhata into a low Earth orbit with a 50.7° inclination, an apogee of 619 km, and a perigee of 568 km. Thirty Indian scientists, including Rao and Dhawan, witnessed the historic moment. Just 30 minutes after launch, telemetry signals reached ground stations at Sriharikota, Bears Lake near Moscow, and a makeshift facility in Peenya, where a converted toilet served as a data receiving centre. The Indian team erupted in celebration, with Dhawan distributing sweets. 

Aryabhata’s scientific mission was partially successful. Its instruments recorded data from the X-ray source CygX1, conducted telemedicine trials, and transferred meteorological data, laying the groundwork for India’s INSAT program. However, a power failure on the fifth day forced the shutdown of its scientific payloads, limiting data collection. Despite this, Aryabhata achieved its primary objectives: demonstrating India’s ability to design, build, and operate a satellite, establishing ground infrastructure, and training a generation of space engineers. The satellite remained in orbit until February 10, 1992, a silent witness to India’s growing prowess. 

The launch was a national triumph, celebrated with a commemorative stamp issued within hours and an image of Aryabhata on the Rs. 2 currency note from 1976 to 1997. The Soviet Union also issued a stamp featuring Aryabhata, underscoring the Indo-Soviet collaboration. The New York Times quoted Indira Gandhi hailing the launch as “an important event in India’s efforts to harness the benefits of science,” while The Hindu’s headline on April 20, 1975, proclaimed, “India Enters Space Age.” 

 A Legacy That Soars 

Aryabhata’s launch was a turning point, propelling India into the ranks of space-faring nations as the 11th country and the second developing nation after China to orbit a satellite. It laid the foundation for ISRO’s subsequent achievements, including the Bhaskara, Rohini, INSAT, and Chandrayaan missions. Today, ISRO has built 131 satellites, with 55 currently in orbit, and has launched 433 satellites for 34 countries. The Peenya sheds evolved into the U.R. Rao Satellite Centre, a hub of innovation. Aryabhata’s legacy is not just technological but cultural, proving that a developing nation with limited resources could achieve greatness through ingenuity and determination. 

The Cold War context, with the Soviet Union’s strategic offer, underscores how global rivalries can catalyse scientific progress. Aryabhata was more than a satellite; it was a symbol of Indo-Soviet friendship and India’s resolve to carve its own path in the cosmos. As ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan noted, “From that humble beginning, we have grown to the highest levels of maturity in satellite technology.” 

Looking Forward 

As we commemorate Aryabhata’s golden jubilee, we honour the pioneers—Sarabhai, UR Rao, Dhawan, Dr Abdul Kalam and countless unsung engineers and scientists —who dared to dream big. Their legacy inspires ISRO’s current endeavours, from lunar exploration to reusable launch vehicles. The 50th anniversary of Aryabhata is an occasion to reflect on how far India has come and to recommit to pushing the boundaries of space exploration for the benefit of humanity. 

Aryabhata was India’s first imprint in space, a beacon of ambition that continues to light the way. Today, April 19, 2025, as we celebrate the 50th year of its launch let us celebrate not just the satellite, but the spirit of a nation which supported the daring dream of ISRO founders in those early days when India was passing through ship to mouth crisis to travel this far to be in the league of space faring nations of the world and to be rubbing shoulders with NASA.

 Images : Courtesy Wikipedia and ISRO   

19 April 2025: Sixty Years of Moore’s Law: A Prophetic Vision Still Shaping the Digital Future

"The future of integrated electronics is the future of electronics itself." — Gordon E. Moore, Electronics Magazine, 1965

On April 19, 1965, a relatively unassuming article published in Electronics magazine by Gordon E. Moore, then Director of R&D at Fairchild Semiconductor and later co-founder of Intel Corporation, would go on to transform the digital world. Titled “Cramming more components onto integrated circuits”, the article predicted that the number of transistors on a silicon chip would double approximately every year, leading to exponential growth in computing capabilities and a decline in cost per function. This idea — later dubbed Moore’s Law — has become one of the most influential forecasts in the history of semiconductor technology.

The 1956 Nobel prize winning works in Physics of William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at the Bell Labs "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect" led to the path breaking development of the wonder device, the transistor, a device that revolutionized electronics leading to the semiconductor industry. The Silicon Valley, Internet and the World Wide Web were technological triumphs of the late 20th Century. When this common architecture for digital information and communications became wedded to the broadband fixed and mobile networks, it brought together previously distinct communications markets for data, voice and broadcast content. This marriage allowed society to take full advantage of the technological benefits of new generation of computer architectures enabled by a very large array of cheap data storage and processors, which ushered us in to this modern world that is driven by path breaking technologies like the Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality, 3D Printing and such other technologies that collectively are dubbed the IR4.0. Today as we celebrate the six decades of the prophetic vision of Gordon Moore, an attempt is made here to see how his vision has shaped the IT industry and its future.

Incidentally, I had published an article in Dream 2047, October 2006 issue, under the title “Gordon Moore, His Law and Integrated Circuits”, the link of the monthly magazine published by Vigyan Prasar, an autonomous organisation of the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, is given below and my article can be found on page 35. 

https://drive.google.com/drive/home

From Insight to Industry Doctrine

Moore’s prediction, based on just a handful of years of data from the nascent semiconductor industry, proved admirably accurate. Though he later revised the time frame to a doubling every two years, the essence of his vision — exponential progress through miniaturization — remained relevant. What’s more extraordinary is how this simple observation became a self-fulfilling prophecy, driving the semiconductor industry to adopt technology roadmaps and innovation cycles aligned with the pace Moore envisioned sixty years ago.

Moore’s Law catalysed decades of innovation. It enabled the proliferation of personal computers, smartphones, automated vehicles, and now, artificial intelligence. His forecast was made just four years after the development of the first planar integrated circuit by Robert Noyce, with whom Moore would go on to found Intel in 1968.

The Physics of Progress: Silicon and Beyond

Silicon, the backbone of modern electronics, is one of Earth’s most abundant elements, found widely in sand. It offered cost-effective scalability, and in the early decades, it was possible to follow Moore’s Law simply by shrinking transistor sizes. This led to the evolution from small-scale integration (SSI) to large-scale (LSI), very large-scale (VLSI), and eventually ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) — packing billions of transistors into chips as small as fingernails.

Yet, as transistor dimensions approach the atomic scale (currently ~2 nanometres in leading-edge commercial chips), continuing this trend faces formidable challenges — quantum tunnelling, heat dissipation, and lithographic limitations. This has led to an industry-wide recognition that Moore’s Law is no longer a guarantee, but a goalpost that demands entirely new paradigms.

Rethinking Moore: Innovations That Keep the Vision AliveThe semiconductor industry is actively working to extend Moore’s Law, despite facing physical limits. Traditional scaling, where transistors shrink to nanometre scales, is becoming challenging due to silicon constraints and heat dissipation issues. However, research suggests solutions like advanced packaging (e.g., Intel’s RibbonFET and PowerVia with Intel 20A and 18A processes) and new materials (e.g., graphene, carbon nanotubes) are being explored. Intel aims for a trillion transistors on a package by 2030 (Intel’s Commitment to Moore’s Law), and the industry is adopting "More than Moore" strategies, integrating non-silicon technologies for enhanced functionality.

The semiconductor industry is trying to constantly push the boundaries by diversifying its approaches, which include, among others;

1. Advanced Node Fabrication: Companies like TSMC, Intel, and Samsung are pushing sub-3nm nodes using EUV lithography and novel Gate-All-Around FETs to improve performance and energy efficiency.

2. Chiplet and 3D Integration: Instead of making one massive chip, companies are designing modular chiplets connected via high-speed interconnects, allowing scaling without shrinking.

 

3. Materials Innovation: Beyond silicon, compound semiconductors (e.g., GaN, SiC), 2D materials like graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), are being explored to create faster and more efficient transistors.

 

4. Photonic and Neuromorphic Computing: Integrating light-based data transmission and brain-inspired computing architectures is yielding advances in speed and efficiency.

 

Quantum Computing: The Next Paradigm Shift

 

As we commemorate 60 years of Moore’s Law today, the world also celebrates the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (2025). The timing is symbolic — we stand at a potential inflection point where quantum computing may redefine what “scaling” means.

 

Quantum computing doesn’t follow Moore’s Law per se, but it opens an entirely new dimension of parallelism and problem-solving. With qubits instead of bits, and superposition instead of binary logic, quantum systems can address complex problems in materials science, cryptography, and AI that are practically impossible for classical computers.

 

Companies like IBM, Google, and start-ups like Rigetti and IonQ are aggressively pursuing quantum processors with growing qubit counts and decreasing error rates. Meanwhile, quantum-classical hybrid systems are emerging as a bridge between current hardware and quantum futures.

 

India’s Semiconductor Aspirations and Global Momentum

India, too, is actively investing in the semiconductor ecosystem, with initiatives like the Semicon India Programme, the establishment of fab proposals, and research in quantum materials and spintronics. The global race to localize chip manufacturing and develop quantum capabilities is reshaping geopolitics and economic priorities.

A Legacy That Lives On

 

In 2006, as mentioned above, I had an opportunity to publish an article reflecting on Moore’s Law and its profound influence, whose link was shared. Today, two decades later, I remain in awe of how one man’s thought became a global technological doctrine. Moore’s Law is not just a law — it is a legacy, one that has empowered billions, connected continents, and continues to inspire.

 

As we enter a future defined by AI, quantum breakthroughs, and post-silicon paradigms, let us honour Gordon Moore — the visionary whose law continues to shape our digital destiny. 

 

 

World Heritage Day 2025: The Rail Heritage of Mumbai from Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai’s collections.

 

 

Every year April 18 is observed as the World Heritage Day. This day is also commemorated as the ‘International Day for Monuments and Sites’. It was in 1982, that UNESCO, during its 22nd General Conference held in Paris from 21-24 June, adopted a resolution to celebrate this day - 18 April - as the ‘International Day for Monuments and Sites’. The first World Heritage Day was celebrated on April 18, 1983. Thereafter, each year the international Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) proposes a theme for the commemoration of this day. This year the theme for the International Day for Monuments and Sites is “Heritage under Threat from Disasters and Conflicts: Preparedness and Learning from 60 Years of ICOMOS Actions”.

 On earlier occasions, commemorating World Heritage Day, I had written about the two important monuments in Bijapur – Gol Gumbaj and Ibrahim Roza - the city where I studied in a residential school for seven years (1970-77) at the Sainik School, Bijapur. Here are the links to these two blogs

https://khened.blogspot.com/2021/04/gol-gumbaz-glorious-monument-which.html

https://khened.blogspot.com/2020/04/the-majesty-of-ibrahim-rauza-monument.html

The main objective for commemorating this day is to educate and sensitise people about the significance of heritage including old monuments and sites, which are our common heritage that we have inherited from our ancestors and we owe preserving these monuments and sites for our future generations.  Heritage that refers to something that is inherited from the past, such as traditions, customs, cultural practices, artefacts, historical buildings, monuments and site, natural landscapes, etc. is our legacy from the past, which has been passed down from previous generations and is often considered to be of significant value or importance to a particular group of people or society as a whole. Heritage is typically seen as a way to preserve and celebrate a community's history and identity, as well as to promote the understanding and appreciation of our cultural diversity. The monuments, sites and such other edifices and other tangible and intangible cultural heritage and identity in which we live today is our common Heritage that we have inherited and it is the one that we must religiously pass on to our future generations.

The Rail heritage of Mumbai is inextricably linked to the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT) building in Mumbai. CSMT is individually listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.  This 19th-century majestic building is now the headquarters of the Central Railway. It was christened originally as the Victoria Terminus (VT), in honour of the then reigning British Queen, Victoria, and it continues to be the most famous architectural landmark of Mumbai. The VT building also served as the headquarters of the Great Indian Peninsular Railways (GIPR), the predecessor of the Indian Railways.

Railway transport has been a life line for Mumbaikars and the Nehru Science Centre Mumbai is in proud possession of some of the historic Rail heritage locomotives – Steam and Electric locomotive – and also a Steam Lorry. It also has in its collection Marut fighter aircraft, which were all restored to their majestic best during Covid. On this occasion of World Heritage Day, I am happy to share the links of three blogs which chronicle the history these three important collections of Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai for the leisure reading of those who it may interest.

https://khened.blogspot.com/2021/01/vintage-90-years-old-electric-railway.html

https://khened.blogspot.com/2020/11/the-hf-24-marut-fighter-aircraft.html

https://khened.blogspot.com/2020/07/114-year-old-steam-waggon-restored-to.html

GIPR had a share capital of 50,000 Pounds when it was incorporated. On August 17, 1849, it entered into a formal contract with the East India Company for the construction and operation of an experimental rail line, 56 km long. The construction and operation of the first passenger railway in India, 16th April 1853 in Mumbai, received global headlines and attention. A report of the historic first train journey says that “large groups of people had gathered along the two sides of the railway track from Bori Bunder to Thane on the inaugural day of the steam engine-driven locomotive”. It was almost some kind of a dream for the people to witness a carriage running without harnessing animal or human power.

The black beauty steam railway engine appeared like a mythical creature that was spewing out white smoke as it moved ahead at speed, which was inconceivable at that time. Very soon, the scientific principle of the steam-operated machines and their power was understood, and the steam power was put to wide use in setting up industries or looms, or even the early road transports like the Steam Waggon and cars that reshaped Bombay’s geography in those early years. Steam locomotives in Mumbai soon gave way to electric locomotives.

British engineers received wide acclaim for the Railway line they had constructed and for the commissioning of the rail transport in India. The global media hailed their accomplishments of building a railway line in a tropical country like India, with varied problems that ranged from snakes and animals to building embankments over difficult stretches.

Three decades after the inaugural rail transport in Bombay, the old wooden structure of Bori Bunder was pulled down and replaced with a new station called Bombay Passenger Station. In the meantime, the Britishers started a mega plan to construct a massive terminus, which was then christened Victoria Terminus - VT.

The construction of the VT station began in 1878, and ten years later, in May 1888, the majestic building of VT (CSMT now) that we see today was completed for Rs 16, 35 562. The building was very unique and was something the citizens of Bombay had never seen before. The construction and operation of Railways had proved the engineering skills of British Engineers, which was further exemplified by the construction of the majestic VT building. The VT building was designed by the consulting British architect, Frederick William Stevens. He has to his credit the design of some other noteworthy Gothic Heritage buildings in Mumbai, which include, among others, the Bombay Municipal Corporation building, the Royal Alfred Sailor’s Home, and the Post-Office Mews at Apollo Bunder. The CSMT building continues to be an engineering marvel even to this day.

The railways also brought about a social revolution in Bombay with scores of workers travelling from different parts of India to Bombay to be a part of the industrial growth, which Bombay was witnessing.

The legend of Bombay as a city of textile mills and Indian cinema began with the introduction of Railways, which attracted masses from across the country to the city to work as labourers or for leisure. The elegant CSMT building has symbolically represented the cosmopolitan character of the city, which witnesses the travel of diverse people and ideas. 

 

A Journey of Heart and Hope: My minuscule contributions to TMM.

This morning, ritualistically when I was browsing through the TOI news paper, I saw this expansive coverage of TMM (Tata Mumbai Marathon 2025) raising 53.6 Crore Rupees for charity in the 2025 edition of the TMM, which has prompted me to pen this post. 

I was one of the attendees of the TMM thanks giving program which was organised at the Trident on 16 April. It was a moment of immense pride that an NGO, Association of Parents of Mentally Retarded Children - ADHAR - with which I am associated was one of the major beneficiaries of the TMM 2025, citizen-led giving sporting platform. Incidentally, in my personal capacity running for the TMM cause, with support from friends, I could raise an amount in excess of Rs 1.1 Million for our NGO, ADHAR. The key person responsible for ADHAR’s success is Mr Ajay Mehta, Trustee Adhar, who led this initiative from the front. In his personal capacity he raised charity in excess of ₹11 Million and so also through the company he founded, Me-Hin Tech Edge Solutions, which was the top corporate fund raiser with a contributions in excess of ₹12 million for ADHAR. I find myself overwhelmed with gratitude, humility, and a deep sense of purpose in expressing my indebtedness to all those who supported ADHAR in the TMM 2025. 

ADHAR—an organization that holds a special place in my heart - is an NGO that has a highly noble objective to serve mentally challenged adults as a home away from home where they are provided a time and pace of their own to lead a life of happiness amidst the wonderful caregivers and stakeholders of ADHAR. Motivated by the extraordinary zeal, enthusiasm, and leadership of Ajay Mehta, who introduced ADHAR at TMM, the fundraising efforts for ADHAR have been rising year on year.   

I am one of many who have helped the cause of ADHAR in fundraising through the TMM platform. What began as a modest effort to raise what I thought to be a highly daunting task of raising a target of Rs 5 Lacs, culminated with an extraordinary achievement that resulted in raising over Rs. 11 lakhs for ADHAR. I must admit that this success is not mine alone—it belongs to the incredible generosity of so many of my very good friends, family, Sainik schoolmates, engineering classmates, colleagues, and many others including the one and only Ajay Mehta, who with their boundless spirit of compassion made this happen. I must also thank my wife, who was more active than me in sending out my written appeal to her circle of friends, which helped the cause immensely. 

Last year, in TMM 2024, I took my first tentative steps as a fundraiser, managing to contribute a modest fund for ADHAR’s mission. As a quintessential scientist —shy, and unaccustomed to seeking favours—I found the experience both daunting and transformative. Yet, it planted a seed of belief in me: that even small efforts, when fuelled by love and supported by a community, can ripple outward to create meaningful change, which is what TMM does year on year. This year, emboldened by that experience and driven by the ever-cheering Ajay Mehta, I was compelled to cast my net wider. What I witnessed was a tidal wave of support that reaffirmed my faith in humanity and the power of collective goodwill.

The Tata Mumbai Marathon is more than an event; it is a movement—a celebration of empathy, resilience, and unity. It shines a light on the often-neglected corners of society, giving voice to causes like ADHAR that tirelessly serve those who need it most. For many families, like mine, ADHAR is a sanctuary—a place where our loved ones, mentally challenged adults, are not just cared for but cherished, nurtured, and given dignity for a lifetime. The dedication of ADHAR’s team, under the inspiring leadership of Chairman Mr. Vishwas Gore and other stakeholders is awe-inspiring. 

Raising over ₹1.1 Million this year was no small feat for someone like me, who prefers the quiet of a laboratory or a museum, to the bustle of outreach. Yet, every effort I made, every message I sent, was met with warmth and generosity. This outpouring of support was a humbling reminder of the deep-rooted philanthropy, more particularly under this platform of TMM ably supported by TCS, that courses through our nation—a willingness to uplift those who society too often overlooks. 

TMM and all the corporates who support TMM deserve to be lauded not just for its impeccable organization or its status as one of Asia’s premier marathons, but for its heart. It transforms a race into a lifeline, channelling the energy of thousands of runners, donors, and supporters into tangible change. It bridges the gap between privilege and need, reminding us that every step taken, every rupee raised, touches lives far beyond the finish line. 

This year, as I watched the funds grow, I thought of the smiles at ADHAR—the joy of a cared-for loved one, the relief of a parent who knows their child’s future is secure. That is the true victory of TMM 2025. To the organizers of the Tata Mumbai Marathon, I extend my heartfelt admiration. Your unwavering commitment to fostering inclusivity and supporting NGOs like ADHAR is a testament to the power of compassion in action. 

I offer my deepest thanks to one and all who have turned my quiet resolve into a resounding triumph. And to ADHAR, whose tireless work gives families like mine peace and purpose, I say: your impact is immeasurable, your dedication unparalleled. 

As I reflect on TMM 2025, I am filled with pride—not just in the funds raised, but in the love, unity, and empathy that made it possible. This experience has taught me that even the shyest among us can find their voice when the cause is worthy, and that together, we can build a world where no one is left behind. 

With gratitude and hope

13 April – Jallianwala Bagh: Honouring the Martyrs, Remembering C. Sankaran Nair, and Reflecting on History’s Truths

Today, 13 April, 2025, we solemnly mark the 106th anniversary of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, a wound that remains in India’s heart. It was on this day - April 13, 1919, in Amritsar, Brigadier General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire indiscriminately on a peaceful, unarmed gathering who had assembled to celebrate Baisakhi at the Jallianwala Bagh. The occasion was also used by some to protest against the British oppression. Under the watch of Punjab’s Lieutenant Governor, General, Michael O’Dwyer, tens of hundreds—perhaps thousands—of men, women, and children perished in minutes, trapped in a merciless barrage of bullets that were fired on the orders of Reginald Dyer. This brutal act remains a stark symbol of colonial atrocities in India’s struggle for freedom. 

Today, while we remember those who perished in the barbaric act of Dyer and O’Dwyer, it is also an occasion remember and honour a forgotten hero of this tragedy: C. Sankaran Nair, one of the founding member of the Indian National Congress and perhaps the only Indian to resign from the Viceroy’s Executive Council in protest against the barbaric act of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. It is ironical that C Shankaran Nair finds no place in the history of Indian independence struggle or at best a foot note reference here and there.It is only courtesy the makers of the film “Kesari, Chapter 2” and the role played by Akshay Kumar as C Shankaran Nair, a brilliant and forceful lawyer that the untold story of Nair been presented to the people. 

Chettur Sankaran Nair was providentially born in 1857, the year which we now mark as the first wars of Independence. He came from a well off family, his father was a Tehsildar and his uncles also worked in administrative positions of British local governance. The young Nair living in a structured family rose rapidly through his brilliance through the rank and files in the British system to occupy positions of great power never held by another Indian. He had a brilliant career as a lawyer, which was recognised by the British resulting in his appointment to the coveted position of the Advocate General. While appointing him to this position the British made it clear that he was the ablest man the British can ever find in all of India. He later became a member of the Viceroys Council. Interestingly, Nair also served as the President of the Indian National Congress, an occurrence which is lost in history, or may be made to be lost. Nair was not afraid to express his disagreement and angst on events which he felt were wrong, and called out the British or Mahatma Gandhi, when he felt what they were doing was wrong and not in the interest of the people of India. He was against Gandhian methods of non-cooperation. Coming from Kerala, he had learnt from his elders the barbarity of Tipu Sultan against the Hindus and therefore he strongly opposed the support that Gandhi had extended to the Khilafat movement. His opposition to Gandhi on this issue alienated him not only from Gandhi but unfortunately he was also kept away in the upper echelons of a soon to-be independent India thus obliterating his name from history of Indian National Congress and Indian independence, notwithstanding the fact that he served as the President of Congress. In his book ‘Gandhi and Anarchy’ Mr Nair articulates his thoughts against Gandhi and his methods of non-cooperation. 

 A fierce lawyer, Nair exposed O’Dwyer’s role as an accomplice in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, exposing British injustices. He fought the case against the mighty O’Dwyer who was supported by the entire British establishment. Although he lost his case and had to pay a huge personal price for exposing British atrocities, he remained steadfast in his stand. Therefore, no wonder that many are now suggesting that this was one of the events which hastened Indian independence and that the contributions of Nair, which was overshadowed until now deserves to be remembered. The film Kesari Chapter 2, with Akshay Kumar as Nair, aims to revive his legacy. 

History also reminds us of Udham Singh, who avenged the massacre of Jallianwala Bagh by assassinating O’Dwyer in London on 13 March 1940. For this, Udham Singh paid with his life, and was sentenced to death in July 1940 by a system that shielded their own, the Britishers and their atrocities. Reginald Dyer, dubbed the ‘Butcher of Amritsar,’ faced no punishment, his actions were even defended by eminent figures like Rudyard Kipling. Known for The Jungle Book, Kipling’s support for the massacre reveals his anti-Indian bias—a truth obscured by his literary fame. Rudyard Kipling publicly supported General Dyer's actions at Jallianwala Bagh, referring to Dyer as "the man who saved India".

To mark this occasion in 2021, I shared my thoughts on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on my blog, which explores the massacre’s causes, impact, and enduring lessons. I invite you to read it for a deeper dive into Jallianwala Bagh’s role in galvanizing India’s freedom fight: https://khened.blogspot.com/2021/04/13th-april-jallianwala-bagh-massacre.html.

Please share the blog link to keep these stories alive. 

As we commemorate this dark chapter in our history, let us honor the martyrs, celebrate unsung heroes like Nair, and confront uncomfortable truths about figures like Kipling. May we pledge to uphold justice, unity, and dignity—values forged in the sacrifices of our ancestors, including many unsung heroes like Nair, whose stories are resurrecting. 

 Jai Hind! Images: Courtesy Wikipedia.