Tribute to Richard Ernst - Nobel Prize Winner Scientist and a diehard collector of Thangka Paintings, on his 90th birthday, 13 August.

 

Professor Richard Ernst, the 1991 Nobel Prize, Chemistry winner, who we had the honour to host at the Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai in 2013, would have been 90 today, if he was alive. Dr Ernst was born on this day, 13 August, 1933 in Switzerland. Unfortunately, he passed away on 8 June, 2021 in the very city - Winterthur, outside Zurich, Switzerland, where he was born.

 

Prof Ernst was a frequent traveller to India, particularly because of his love for the Thangka paintings. Although, science was his first love, Dr Ernst was equally in love with his second love, Art – evidenced in his collections and research on the Tibetan Thangka paintings. In that sense he was an exception to the “Two Cultures” concept, which CP Snow articulated.

 

In April 2013, just two months after I assumed the charge of Director of Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai, I was privileged to host Dr Ernst at the Nehru Science Centre. He was on a visit to the TIFR and we used the opportunity to request Dr Ernst to spare his precious time to interact with the school students at Nehru Science Centre, which he so very kindly agreed. He delivered an outstanding lecture to an over packed auditorium with several more students sitting in the adjoining hall witnessing the event on a close circuit TV that we had to organised for an additional 200 plus students who had turned up for the lecture in addition to the nearly 400 students who had already over populated our auditorium. Dr Ernst mesmerised the students and had extraordinary patience to take so many questions and patiently interact with students, a rare attribute for a scientist of his high calibre.

 

Here is a link to a blog tribute which I had penned on 10 June 2018, when he passed away. https://khened.blogspot.com/2021/06/prof-richard-ernst-1991-nobel-prize.html

 

This blog covers the scientific contributions of Dr Ernst and so also touches upon his interaction with the students at the NSC Mumbai, while leaving out his second love – Thangka paintings. Therefore, I will therefore be confining this tribute to Dr Ernst and his love for the Thangka paintings.

 

Although Science was his first love, Dr Richard Ernst was equally in love with his second love, Art, which is evidenced from his outstanding collections, research and publications on the Tibetan Thangka paintings. In that sense Dr Ernst was an exception to the “Two Cultures” which CP Snow spoke about.

 

In a 1959 lecture by a British scientist and author C. P. Snow, titled "The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution”, Snow articulated his thoughts about an apparent divide that exists between the two main intellectual cultures of the modern world: the literary or humanistic culture and the scientific or technological culture. Snow observed that there was a growing gap between these two cultures, with intellectuals from each culture often having little understanding or appreciation for the other. He argued that this divide was harmful to society, as it hindered an effective communication and collaboration between scientists and those in the humanities and other areas of creativity.

 

In my career spanning 37 plus years in the field of science museums, I have experienced first-hand, this divide which exists between scientists and artists. As a science museum professional and a science communicator I have been privileged to interact with many scientists and fortunately for me I got another opportunity to work and interact with artists when I was given an additional charge to be the Director of the NGMA Mumbai for nearly six years.  During this period, I also had an opportunity to interact with many renowned artists at NGMA, Mumbai and this interaction and experience has made me to affirm to the Two Cultures, which C P Snow spoke about, with no disrespect to either the scientists or the artists.

 

Dr Richard Ernst is an exception to the “Two Cultures”, like our very own scientist Dr Homi Jahangir Bhabha, who was both a scientist and an artist and a great art connoisseur who helped TIFR collect and build some of the best collections of paintings and other art works. Post my retirement, I am engaged, in a way, with creative people in the field of arts and humanities at the CSMVS where I am currently working as the Advisor. Among the nearly 70 thousand plus encyclopaedic collections of objects which the Museum has, couple of the collections are the famous Thangka Tibetan paintings, which are on display in the Tibetan gallery of the museum. Whenever I see these paintings at the Museum, I am reminded of Prof Ernst and his enormous collections of the Thangka paintings and so also his study and research on these unique paintings. In my tribute to Dr Ernst I had not written much about his second love – Tibetan Thangka Paintings and therefore in this write up I am briefly writing on his works as an artist or an art lover. 

 

Sotheby’s catalogue, “HIMALAYAS – The RICHARD R. & MAGDALENA ERNST COLLECTION OF IMPORTANT TIBETAN PAINTINGS AND OTHER HIMALAYAN WORKS OF ART” published during the Paris auction in December 2022, exemplifies the passion and love of Dr Ernst for the Thangka paintings. The catalogue carries an excellent essay by Dr Ernst, where he articulates his thoughts on how he fell in love with the Thangka paintings. He says “Human beings are “collectors” by nature. They want to preserve their glorious history forever. They try to leave indelible traces of their past. But not everybody is a creative artist and most humans depend on the creativity of others to design a worthy tombstone or a respectable monument. Naturally, this is true also for me”.

 

Dr Ernst’s interest in chemistry started with his curiosity to explore an old wooden box full of chemicals, which his grandfather had stored in their attic in their old house away from people. It ended in a disaster when the young tried experimenting with the chemicals leading to an explosion. Fortunately, no one was injured. This disastrous beginning of experimenting with chemistry, however, did not deter him from the subject, rather it kindled an interest in chemistry for Ernst. He quotes “Fortunately, our house and I survived (from the explosion), nurturing my decision to study chemistry at ETH Zürich. In particular, spectroscopy became my preferred tool of exploration. My thesis advisor suggested that I acquaint myself with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), an upcoming analytical method that was “worth investing a lifetime”. And the rest is history, winning Dr Ernst the coveted Nobel Prize singularly in Chemistry the details of which I have described in my blog whose link has been shared above.

 

During one of his early travels in 1968, from California back to his home in Switzerland, Dr Ernst and his wife began their tryst with the Thangka paintings. His wife Magdalena and Dr Ernst were exploring the market of Kathmandu when they first encountered the Thangka paintings in a store. It was love at first sight for Dr Ernst who says “I was struck by their fantastic colourfulness”. Although Dr Ernst was initially unaware of the spiritual messaging that these paintings carried, and his love for these paintings was primarily because of the vibrancy of the rich colours - the chemistry of which was a major attraction to the scientist in Ernst, it did not take long for Dr Ernst to understand and appreciate the socio religious spiritual messaging that the Thangka paintings carried.

 

Thangka Paintings serve as a window in to the spiritual realm of Buddhism, which was one of three main religions of the world that originated in India, a land where Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism was born. Thangka paintings are a distinctive form of religious art originating from Tibet, which hold a profound significance within the realm of Buddhism. These intricate and colourful scroll paintings serve as more than mere artistic creations; they are windows into the spiritual and philosophical world of Buddhism. With their intricate detailing, vibrant colours, and portrayal of deities, mandalas, and sacred scenes, Thangka paintings play a significant role in conveying Buddhist teachings and guiding practitioners on their spiritual journey.

 

The Thangka paintings have a rich history that dates back centuries. They have served as instructional tools for conveying complex Buddhist spiritual concepts to a large population using vibrant visual means. In monasteries and homes, these paintings became tangible manifestations of Buddhist philosophy and devotion, allowing practitioners to connect with the teachings of Buddha on a visual level. Thangka paintings are not merely artistic creations; they are meticulously crafted visual representations of Buddhist beliefs. Every element in a Thangka holds symbolic significance, often rooted in the teachings of the Buddha. Deities, bodhisattvas, and mandalas are rendered with precision to convey specific qualities and attributes. The symmetry and geometry within the paintings reflect the cosmic order and the interconnectedness of all things – central tenets of Buddhist thought. One can witness the reverence that the Buddhist monks and the followers of Buddhism have for these paintings at the Himalayan Gallery at CSMVS, where two of these paintings from the collections of CSMVS have been displayed. Incidentally the National Museum, New Delhi and also Bihar Museum, Patna also have a large Thangka Paintings in their collections.

 

Dr Ernst fell in love with these paintings primarily because of the rich and vibrant colours, chemistry to Dr Ernst, embedded in these paintings that lend them their unique aesthetic beauty. But then deeper study and understanding helped Dr Ernst learn the significance of these paintings for Buddhists and very soon he became a collector of Tibetan scroll paintings, whose passion he carried all through his life.

 Dr Ernst started collecting Tibetan thangkas from late 1960, and his collection initially started with the purpose of trying to understand the chemical composition of their paint pigments. He used non-invasive techniques to see through certain layers of coloured paint in the paintings and for this his first love – NMR came in handy. He used the NMR Infra-red spectroscopy to study the layers of coloured paints in the Thangka paintings. Dr Ernst also used another technique - Raman spectroscopy, named after Indian Nobel Laureate Prof CV Raman who discovered a new type of inelastic scattering, the principle of which is used in developing the Raman Spectroscopy, which also allows the chemical composition of the paint to be determined non-destructively and enables distinction of the Nepalese and Tibetan paintings, each of which have their own signatures that are captured by Raman Spectroscopy.

Dr Ernst established from his research findings of the study of the Nepal and Tibet Thangka paintings that Nepalese paintings contain a green colour, which is a mixture of indigo (blue) and orpiment (yellow) pigments, while Tibetan uses malachite which is a bright green pigment. Although there were some objections to the study of these paintings using Raman Spectroscopy by some sections of the art conservators – due to the risks of using Raman spectroscopy is that holes can be burnt into the painting if the laser power is too high, Dr Ernst, convinced the conservators that the holes created during the object examination are so small that if he looks at another area and then returns, he can't find the holes again. Later in his career, Dr Ernst established a lab for investigating the Thangs paintings in his home. Dr Ernst has delivered many lectures around the world on the Thangka paintings to art audience shedding new light into these paintings.

Ernst's collection of thangkas is one of the most important collections in the world. It includes thangkas from all over Tibet, as well as from other parts of Asia. The collection is on display at the Ernst Museum in Basel, Switzerland. Ernst's interest in thangkas was more than just a hobby. He believed that thangkas were important works of art that deserved to be preserved and studied. He also believed that thangkas could play a role in promoting understanding between cultures. His collection serves as a valuable resource for scholars and students of Tibetan Buddhism and helps us to remind ourselves of the importance of cultural preservation, more so when Tibet is now under the control of the Chinese and there is a heightened fear of this culture getting lost once and for all.

Dr Ernst has also authored several essays and books on Thangka Paintings. His book, Thangkas: Tibetan Sacred Art, is a “comprehensive overview of thangka painting”. It covers the history, symbolism, and techniques of thangkas. In his scholarly article “Arts and Sciences. A Personal Perspective of Tibetan Painting”, Dr Ernst highlights the “relationship between the arts and the sciences from the standpoint of a scientist and passionate art lover”. He says that these “two playgrounds of human creativity have much in common and have cross fertilized each other over centuries”. He has subjected his own collections to scientific study and analysis of pigments and also the dating.  

Dr Richard Ernst truly defied CP Snow’s concept of  “Two Cultures”, which is exemplified in his interest in thangka paintings, which ultimately led to his appreciation for beauty, his love of learning, and his commitment to cultural preservation. His collection of thangkas is a lasting legacy that will continue to inspire and enlighten people for generations to come.

CSMVS Collections of Thangka 

Thangka Paintings: From the collections of CSMVS

Since my post on the love for Thangka Paintings of Dr Richard Ernst, was triggered by the Thangka Paintings which are in the collections of CSMVS, I am writing this foot note to high light the Thangka Paintings which are in the collection of CSMVS, for which my thanks and acknowledgement are due to Ms. Manish Madam and Ms Prachee of CSMVS, who very kindly shared the images of the Thangka paintings from their collection and so also information on these paintings. which I am adding in this post to highlight the love which Dr Ernst had for the Himalayan Thangka Paintings – both Tibet and Nepal Thangka paintings, that he was very fond of collecting, researching and documenting.

The two Thangka paintings, which are shown above at the end are the Green Tara an Embroidery on Cloth from Tibet, 17th century. The second Thangka painting is a painting on silk titled Chundhaa, Thangka from Nepal from the 17th century.

Green Tara is a 300 plus year old Embroidered Thangka which depicts the protective Tibetan deity, Green Tara, one who personifies transcendent wisdom and is often thought of as the universal mother figure to Buddha. The role of Tara is to guide and save individuals, especially monks and travellers from the perils of travel, both physically and spiritually. She is renowned as the protector from the Eight Great Perils. The perils represent actual physical dangers faced by monks and pilgrims in the Himalayas and are symbols of impediments to attainment of selfhood as well.

The second Thangka is a work titled Goddess Chundhaa, a deity related to Buddhist mysticism whose powers include elimination of epidemics and other diseases. She also purifies negative karma. This 200-year-old gum-tempera painting on cloth, is a tangkha, from Nepal. The tangkha is not considered complete without its mounting.

Images and Text for the CSMVS Thangka paintings : Courtesy : Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya.

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT): A Noble Diagnostic Biomedical Imaging Tool & my Tryst with it.

 

A fortnight ago, I had written about my right eye ailment and how it got aggravated due to a delayed diagnosis, which later turned out to be what is medically termed as ‘Anterior Uveitis’. Fortunately, the doctors could accurately diagnose my eye condition courtesy a biomedical engineering diagnostic tool – the Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT). Modern advancements in OCT and Raman spectroscopy hold great promise in providing new insights into the retina, which can serve ophthalmologists in saving many vision losses for their patients.

 

Uveitis is a serious eye condition characterized by inflammation of the uvea - middle layer of the eye, iris, ciliary body, and choroid. If left untreated, Uveitis can lead to disastrous consequences, a glimpse of which I had begun to experience with blurred vision and other complications. Uveitis can be classified based on the part of the uvea that is affected and, in my case, it was the Anterior uveitis (iritis): Inflammation of the front part of the uvea, including the iris and ciliary body. The technology that helped my Doctors - Dr. Jaydeep Walinjkar, Dr. Hitesh R Sharma, Dr Smit and my good friend Dr Natarajan - at the Aditya Jyot Hospital diagnose my symptoms - red eye, pain, light sensitivity, blurred vision - as Anterior Uveitis, was this noble biomedical diagnostic tool - OCT. I have accordingly been advised a proper regime of treatment for the Uveitis, which I am undergoing and hope to recover completely.

 

Now that I have been making the rounds to the Aditya Jyot hospital and my Doctor,  Dr Hitesh Sharma, and so also my good friend Doctor Natarajan - the man who founded the Aditya Jyot Hospital - have been very kind to discuss about my medical condition with me in some simple scientific terms, including showing me on screen OCT images and explaining how they are seen and interpreted, I am assured that by the time the six week Uveitis treatment regime - with the corticosteroids - are done with, my eye can come back to near normalcy - fingers crossed, they murmur. Having spent most of my professional career in science museums, I have learnt the skill of communicating complex science subjects in an easier to understand way with the public by interacting and learning the subject from experts. The challenge that I was facing with my eye provided me an opportunity on a platter to know more about Uveitis and how science and technology has helped its diagnosis. Therefore, I decided to use this opportunity to try and create an awareness about Uveitis and how early diagnosis can save patients from a possibility of permanent loss of vision and how technologies like the OCT help in early detection of such eye disorders. 

 

Doctors have helped me to understand the importance of OCT in early diagnosis by showing me and explaining the OCT images of my eye and how the data from these images can be interpreted for better understanding of the retina. OCT and such other medical diagnostic tools have resulted from harvesting the knowledge of science of nature that serves as an underpinning for development of any technology, including the medical tools that serve human society.

 

Just a couple of days ago the Times of India reported of a very high prevalence of conjunctivitis in Mumbai. In fact, I too was under the impression that I was affected with it. But then, it turned out to be something completely different and my experience has motivated me to appeal to all my friends and family that if you or any of your near and dear one’s experience symptoms such as eye redness, pain, light sensitivity, blurred vision etc. don’t neglect it as a conjunctivitis or some un harmful infection, it could be Uveitis or something else and therefore you must not delay in seeking professional medical advice as early as possible.

 Beginning in the late 1950s, but accelerating at an ever-faster pace thereafter, leading into the twenty first century, science and technology has dramatically transformed the landscape of modern medicine. The importance of S&T in modern medicine cannot be understated, more so when we  notice that before the World War a typical physician had a modest armamentarium as his toolkit in his arsenal, which included a thermometer, stethoscope, sphygmomanometer, and an occasional access to x-ray machines and electrocardiograph. These tools supplemented a limited cabinet of pharmaceuticals including sulfa drugs and negligible quantity of penicillin, which the Doctors had access to in the 1940s. 

 

There has been  a paradigm shift in the advancement of medical diagnostics, thereafter. After the World War, biological medical diagnostics research has witnessed unprecedented development with the efforts of many scientists and engineers who have helped in creating a new armamentarium of biophysics instruments- Electron Microscopes, Ultracentrifuges, Mass Spectrometers and new agents such as radioactive isotopes. A revolution in microelectronics and semiconductors initiated during the War together with the development of high computing devices, that can crunch elephantine data, have led the way to new fields of biomedical imaging such as Ultrasound, Computerized Tomography (CT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanners,  Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the instrument which helped in diagnosing my eye problem,  ‘Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT). This essay will however, be confined to OCT.

 

The importance of OCT as a marvel engineering technology for benefitting medical professional can be seen from the fact that the National Academy of Engineering (NAE), a premier American institution that provides engineering leadership to the nation for advancing the welfare and prosperity of the people has awarded a highly prestigious Fritz J. and Dolores H. Russ Prize (2017) for Biomedical Engineering to a group of scientists and engineers  - James G. Fujimoto, Adolf F. Fercher, Christoph K. Hitzenberger, David Huang, and Eric A. Swanson - for their contributions to the invention of the Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT). This $500,000 biennial prize - considered as prestigious as the Nobel Prize in the field of Biomedical engineering - recognises a bioengineering achievement that significantly improves human condition. The citation for the prize reads; “leveraging creative engineering to invent imaging technology essential for preventing blindness and treating vascular and other diseases." The recipients of this Prize “personify how engineering transforms the health and happiness of people across the globe," said NAE President C. D. Mote, Jr, while making this announcement. The creators of OCT  have dramatically improved the quality of life for people with diminished eyesight.

 

As the name suggests the OCT works on the principle of optics - interferometry, where a beam of light is split into two arms - a reference arm and a sample arm. In the sample arm, the light is directed towards the tissue being examined. Some of this light is reflected back, while some is scattered or absorbed by the tissue. The light that is reflected back from different depths within the tissue is then combined with the reference light in the interferometer. By comparing the time delay of the reflected light with the reference light, OCT creates a depth profile of the tissue being examined. This information is used to construct a detailed cross-sectional image of the internal structures, allowing doctors to visualize and diagnose various medical conditions non-invasively. OCT is majorly used in ophthalmology for retinal imaging and in other medical fields like cardiology and dermatology for examining various tissues and organs.

 

OCT has now grown to become one of the most widely used technologies for imaging the human eye and is an essential tool for the treatment of blinding diseases such as macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy. It has helped doctors in diagnosing millions of patients with eye disease at early treatable stages, before irreversible loss of vision can occur. Infrared light is used in OCT because of its relatively long wavelength, which allows it to penetrate the scattering medium. The concept of OCT was first introduced in the 1960s, but significant progress was made in the 1980s and 1990s when several researchers independently developed different OCT systems. 

 

The first two-dimensional picture of the fundus - inside, back surface of the eye made up of retina, macula, optic disc, fovea and blood vessels - of a human eye in vivo ( Latin word for ‘within the living’ ) was created by Adolf Friedrich Fercher, using white light interferometry. Fercher’s visionary ideas laid the basis for the development of OCT and the first in vitro OCT images were published by German and United States researchers in 1991. Fercher began his works in this field in late 1960s, while working for a private company. Post his graduation in physics, in 1968, Fercher had started working at Carl Zeiss, Germany, on optical testing, computer holography and holographic interferometry. In 1975, he became a professor at the University of Essen, Germany. Thereafter, he served as professor of medical physics and chair of the Department of Medical Physics, at the Medical School of the University of Vienna.  Fercher published his first paper on the biomedical applications of optics while he was still working for Carl Zeiss, by  calculating light scattering in a simplified model cell. He showed that the scattered signal oscillates as a function of scattering angle and that the oscillation length is related to particle diameter. It was during his time at the University of Vienna that Fercher and his colleagues worked on low partial coherence and white light interferometry for in vivo imaging of biological tissue. Their focus was on the human eye. Although the image quality of Fercher’s 2-D interferometric depth scans of the fundus was poor compared with modern standards, the retinal thickness and the excavation of the optic disc were visible.  His works created a spark for advances in this field of biomedical optics.

 

The next major development in this field came in the United States of America. In the late 1980s, a team of researchers, led by Dr. James Fujimoto at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and assisted by ophthalmologists Joel Schuman, David Huang, and Carmen Puliafito, worked on this concept by using low-coherence interferometry for the measurement of corneal thickness. Unfortunately, they had limited success and therefore the group decided to test its potential in retinal imaging. This decision proved  to be providential and in 1991, leading to a widely acclaimed publication by Huang and others on the very first retinal OCT images of an ex-vivo human eye. Dr Huang named this new diagnostic technique ‘optical coherence tomography.’ Soon thereafter, the first commercially available OCT device was launched by Humphrey Instruments in 1996.

 

One of the earliest OCT systems was time-domain based OCT (TD-OCT), which used a low-coherence interferometer to measure the echo time delay of backscattered light from tissues. However, TD-OCT had limitations in terms of speed and resolution and therefore it gave way to a Spectral-Domain OCT (SD-OCT). In the early 2000s, the advent of SD-OCT dramatically improved imaging capabilities. SD-OCT employs a spectrometer to measure the entire spectrum of backscattered light simultaneously, allowing for faster acquisition rates and higher resolution. This technological leap significantly enhanced the utility of OCT in ophthalmology, enabling more detailed visualization of retinal layers and facilitating the diagnosis of various retinal pathologies. Another significant advancement in OCT technology was the development of Swept-Source OCT (SS-OCT), which uses a tunable laser as a light source. SS-OCT offers superior imaging penetration, making it especially valuable for imaging deeper structures such as the choroid. Additionally, the integration of OCT with angiography techniques has enabled the visualization of blood flow in retinal vessels, enhancing diagnostic capabilities for vascular conditions.

 

The future for the OCT would be facilitated by added functionality of biochemical analysis, which can be provided by Raman scattering. This could provide critical molecular signatures for clinicians and researchers to understand the intricacies of the problems at the cellular level. OCT microscope for ex-vivo imaging combined with Raman spectroscopy will be capable of collecting morphological and molecular information about a sample simultaneously. Raman spectroscopy - spectroscopic method based on inelastic scattering of photons - allows the intrinsic biochemical composition of a sample to be identified.  Although there are challenges in the development of this dual-mode instrument and so also certain limitations for future in-vivo retinal imaging using such a dual mode instrument, however, looking at the pace with which science and technology develops the future seems to be brighter. The combination of OCT and Raman spectroscopy could provide new insights into the retina helping shed light into the lives of darkness that many people lead due to blindness and vision loss.

 

May the benefits of science and technology continue to benefit society.

Jai. Vigyan.

 

India - West Indies Test Series Begins today: Nostalgic account of the ‘Coming of Age’, two back-to-back 1971 Test series victories for India against West Indies and England.

After losing the ICC World Test championship (2021-23 cycle) to the deserving champion team, Australia, at the Oval, in the one-off test, India takes on the West Indies today to kick start their 2023-25 World Test Championship cycle, with a two-test series and three ODIs to be played in West Indies.

 Although the West Indies team have gone down the hill from their once mighty pivotal position in the cricketing arena, where they had ruled the world of cricket with back-to-back championship victories in the ICC Prudential World Cups in the inaugural championship in 1975 and 1979, historically speaking the India West Indies cricket series has always been of great importance for us. India, which was considered as a minnow’s team in the world of Cricket, came of the ages by winning the five-test series against the West Indies in 1971, which they followed it up by registering an emphatic historic series victory against the invincible England by defeating them on their home soil. 

 The impact of the back-to-back series wins by the Indian cricket team on foreign soil was so profound that it prompted the Films Division to produce their first ever full-length documentary film on Cricket under the title ‘Victory Story’. This outstanding black and white documentary film - nearly two hours duration - was directed by the veteran journalist Raju Bharatan. The Victory Story, produced in 1974, chronicled the first-ever maiden test series victory of the Indian cricket team over England during the tour of 1971. 

The Victory Story (1974), the first full-length cricket documentary for Films Division, which chronicled the first-ever maiden series victory of the Indian cricket team over England during the tour of 1971 and ran to packed houses across the country on its release. 

Films Division was one of the institutions that was created by Pandit Nehru in 1948 with a task to lead the development, production and distribution of documentary films on socially significant subjects with an objective of nation building, integration, and development that Nehru felt was necessary for the newly independent and democratic Republic of India. True to its objectives, the Films Division produced some of the best documentary films, particularly in the first three to four decades, and one of them was the Victory Story documentary. This film, directed by Raju Bharatan - a veteran journalist and a prolific writer on Indian cricket and Bollywood films - ran to packed houses across the country on its release. Its success had prompted me to use this film prominently as a part of the ‘Cricket Connects: India - England’, exhibition, which I had the honour to curate and present at the Lord’s stadium, Nehru Centre, London and in two other venues in Birmingham and Edinburgh in England in 2017. 

Today, as India takes on the West Indies at Windsor Park in Roseau, Dominica in their opening test of the two-test series, I am reminded of that historic 1971 five test series that India played and won against the mighty West Indies. This series served as the beginning of the story of the coming of ages in the colonial game for India, which they now proudly lead the world in its administration. The Indian team followed up its historic 1971 win against the West Indies with a maiden test series victory against England in England in the same year. I had used these two series victories in the Cricket exhibition - Cricket Connects: India England - under the title ‘Coming of Age’. Incidentally, The Eastern Eye Title had nominated the Cricket Connects: India England Cricket Relations exhibition for the Eastern Eye Arts, Culture and Theatre in the Eastern Eye Community Engagement Award category in England. 

Raju Bharatan, the Director of the film Victory Story, was a multi-talented journalist and prolific writer on Indian cricket and Bollywood films. The Victory Story (1974), the first full-length cricket documentary for Films Division, which chronicled the first-ever maiden series victory of the Indian cricket team over England during the tour of 1971 and ran to packed houses across the country on its release. 

Coming of Age: (1971

The watershed year for Indian Cricket) Ever since India’s debut in the test cricket at the Lord's, England, on 25 June 1932, for nearly forty years, India continued to be a weak team in comparison with other Test cricket teams, such as Australia and England. The year 1971 was a watershed year that remains etched in the annals of cricket history in India. It was in that year and under the new captain – Ajit Wadekar – India registered her first-ever away-series victories in the West Indies and England to inject a refreshing self-belief in the Indian cricket, hitherto unseen. The team backed up the two back-to-back series victories over seas with a series win against England in India a year later thus achieving a remarkable three series wins on the trot. 

The West Indies team of 1971 wasn’t their strongest side, yet it consisted of some of the most well-known names in international cricket. Roy Fredericks, Rohan Kanhai, Gary Sobers and Clive Lloyd formed the backbone of the West Indies team. India, too, had a number of veterans in their ranks like ML Jaisimha, Salim Durrani, Dilip Sardesai and EAS Prasanna. But the one player who would go on to make a monumental difference to the team India in the years to come was a 21-year-old collegian with no international experience. The youngster – Sunil Gavaskar – made the kind of debut that Test cricket has not seen till this day. The 5 Test series that India played against the West Indies in 1971 is now synonymous with Sunil Ganvaskar’s majestic batting and Sar Desai’s rock-like presence at the other end. 

India did not field Sunil Gavaskar in the first of the five Tests at Kingston, Jamaica due to injury. Indians made a remarkable beginning to the 5 Test series by enforcing a follow on to the West Indies in this Test, which shocked the conscience of West Indies captain Sobers. The Test though ended in a draw. 

The second Test was at Port of Spain, Trinidad and it marked the beginning of one of the greatest Test careers of Sunil Manohar Gavaskar. He walked out to open batting for India for the very first time after Bedi and Prasanna had bowled out the West Indies for 214. Gavaskar laid the foundation of the Indian innings scoring 65, which was strongly cemented by Sar Desai (112) and Solkar (55) leading to an Indian score of 357. India’s chances of winning a historical Test depended a lot on how quickly and cheaply they could get rid of the two left-handers – Clive Lloyd and Gary Sobers. 

Durani came into the party and bowled Sobers for duck and, followed it up with the wicket of Lloyd caught by Wadekar. Venkat then ran through the bottom half of the Windies with a five-wicket haul to restrict the home team to 261. With 124 needed for victory, Gavaskar led the run-chase with 67 not out helping India to achieve a historic win for the Indians. 

The next two Test matches at Guyana and Barbados ended in draws in which Gavaskar (116, 117*) Sardesai (150) and Sobers (108*, 178*) helped themselves with plenty of runs. The fifth and the final Test was played at Trinidad. Since it was the last Test of the series, it was to be a six-day match. India batted first and scored 360 on the back of Gavaskar’s 124 and Sardesai’s 75. West Indies, intent on winning the match to level the series, which India was leading 1-0, piled on 526 and it was India who had to save this match. Gavaskar then played the most crucial innings of the whole series. He scored a classy 220 out of India’s 427 that too with a severe toothache. West Indies set a target of 262 to win ended on 165 for eight at the end of the sixth day’s play and that meant India had won the five-match series 1-0. Gavaskar amassed a mammoth 774 runs in four Tests in this historic series. 

The England series 

Ajit Wadekar, the successful captain had learnt captaincy from Tiger Pataudi who had helped the team in improving the attitude of the players and also in vastly getting better in fielding. The Indian Team could now aim to beat other teams away from home due to the new-found confidence from series win in the Caribbean. That confidence was further boosted when they followed it up with another series win in England later that year. 

The Indian team went to England - to play a 3 match Test series - 2 months after its tour to the West Indies in the same year 1971. The Test matches were played in July-August that year by which time the pitches tended to wear in England and support spin. The Indian spin quartet included Bedi, Chadrasekhar, Prasanna, and Venkatraghavan. 

The England team was in high spirits for they had just won the 7 Test Ashes series 2-0 against their arch rivals Australia. The England team, led by a thorough professional, Ray Illingworth, was clear favourites to win the series against India. The team also included BL D’Oliveria, a central figure in the ante apartheid and boycott of South Africa from International cricket. The Indians opened their England tour with the tour match against Middlesex at the Lords (23-25 June, 1971) which they won by 2 wickets. They however lost the next match to the Essex. They played 6 other tour matches four of which were won by the Indians and two were draw. The Indians went into the First Test, at the Lords (July 22-27) with full of confidence. 

India dominated the first Test of the series, which ended in a draw. Aided by three scores of fifty plus by Captain Wadekar, Vishwanath and Solkar the Indians were able to score 9 runs more than the England team in the first innings. England was bundled out for 194 in the second innings. Set to score 183 to win in the fourth innings India ended the last day with a score of 145 for 8 thus ending the first test in a draw. The Indian spin trio of Venkat, Chandra and Bedi had dominated the England team. 

This test also witnessed an untowardly incident. Sunil Gavaskar and Snow were involved in this incident when the mightily looking Snow collided with Sunny while Sunny was taking a quick run. Sunny went tumbling down due to the massive impact. Snow was unfortunately dropped for the next Test. The second Test was played at the Old Trafford, Manchester. England chose to bat first after winning the toss. Aided by captain’s century knock, England scored an imposing 386 runs. The Indians were bundled out for 212. Gavaskar and Solkar scored half centuries for the touring team. England declared their second innings at 245 for 3 with the opener Luckhurst scoring a century. The Indians, set to score a massive 420 runs for the win or bat out the remaining time for a draw, were aided by the rain and the match was called off when Indians were 65 for 3. 

With the series level at 0-0, both teams then met at the Oval in the final match. England who won the toss and elected to bat first was bowled out for 355. In reply, India made 284 runs as the hosts took a 71-run lead in the first innings. Chandrasekhar then spun magic with the ball picking up a match-winning 6-wicket haul to bundle out England for a paltry 101 in the second innings. Chandra finished with figures of 8 for 114 in the match. India chased down the target of 173 with four wickets in hand to record the historic series win at the Oval on 24th August, 1971. 

The scene of this historic victory at the Oval in London was ecstatic with scores of Indian fans thronging to the ground, where Ajit Wadekar’s team had beaten England by four wickets to end the hosts' run of 26 Test matches without defeat. Each member of India's XI was a hero during and after this magnificent win, but the one who really stood out was the legendary leg spinner Bhagwat Chandrasekhar, who had helped the team to the historic win. 

The three Indian spinners along with Prasanna took 197 of the 244 wickets to fall in the entire series thus dominating the bowling and paving the way for an era of spin that was to follow in India. The England team came to the subcontinent the following year (1972) and found the spin trio too hot to handle once again on the spin-friendly tracks in India. The visitors were handed a 2-1 defeat in the subsequent five-match series at home with Wadekar registering his third successive series win as captain of the Indian team. 

The year 1971 and the three successive series victories including two overseas for the Indians has helped the team come off ages and ever since the Indian team has continued to move up in the ranking, both in Test cricket and One-day Internationals. India now stands among the top ranking cricket nations and is one of the most talented cricket teams in the world and the roots for this success were sown by the teams that won three back to back series that started in West Indies in 1971.

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25 Years of Operation Shakti: Pokhran II 

Twenty-five years ago on this day, 11 May 1998, India woke in to Nuclear Freedom, setting itself apart from the nuclear apartheid strangle hold regime, which the world led by US of A wanted us to follow. The operation Shakti, carried out on this day in 1998, in one of the most secretive manners, not only caught big powers like the US napping, but also attracted their ire and sanctions both on the economic and technology fronts for sometimes. This was a historic moment for India which was achieved after a great deal of deliberation and preparation, under the able political leadership of Prime Minister, Atal Bihari Vajpayee supported by scientific and technical leadership of Dr. R Chidambaram, Chairman DAE, Dr Abdul Kalam, Head of DRDO and Dr Anil Kakodkar, Director BARC. The announcement of India going nuclear was made by the then Prime Minister, Vajpayee in the presence of the then National Security Advisor Brijesh Mishra, during an impromptu press briefing which was organised by the PIB on 11 May, 1998.

 A week later, on May 18, the Sunday after the nuclear tests, a media conference was organised with national and international media in attendance at the Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi. This press brief was addressed by the External Affairs spokesperson, R Chidambaram, APJ Abdul Kalam and a battery of top officials. One can recall some interesting anecdotes from this press meet. One of the representatives of a top US publication asked a question to Dr. Kalam - who was had emerged as the visible face of Pokhran-II among the scientists and technologists – whether the “nuclear adventure” conducted by India was justifiable, especially for a poor nation struggling to feed its millions, and lacking sanitation? (One must recall similar questions that Satish Dhawan and his team had to encounter when they first failed in their maiden mission of the Satellite Launch Vehicle – SLV I before the achieveme of ISRO becoming nations darling institute). Dr Kalam, a prodigy of Satish Dhawan, was unperturbed. In his inimitable, storytelling style, Kalam patiently explained: “India has always been a nation under attack in its long history. It has seldom attacked another country. India is presently, surrounded by hostile neighbours, and it requires strong deterrence. In contrast, the US has never been attacked and had the least threat, but why it possesses the highest number of nuclear weapons. Was it justified?”, he had asked. 

The official communication of the compelling reasons under which India had to go for these tests were sent in a letter to U.S. President Bill Clinton, by Vajpayee. He highlighted the “deteriorating security environment, especially the nuclear environment” and made indirect references to China and Pakistan — as the primary justification for Pokhran-II. He wrote “You would already be aware of the underground nuclear tests carried out in India. In this letter, I would like to explain the rationale for the tests. I have been deeply concerned at the deteriorating security environment, especially the nuclear environment, faced by India for some years past. We have an overt nuclear weapon state on our borders, a state which committed armed aggression against India in 1962. ….. At the hands of our bitter neighbour, we have suffered three aggressions in the last 50 years. And for the last ten years we have been the victim of unremitting terrorism and militancy sponsored by it in several parts of our country, especially Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. Fortunately, the faith of the people in our democratic system as also their patriotism has enabled India to counter the activities of the terrorists and militants aided and abetted from abroad”. He ended the letter by stating “ the series of tests are limited in number and pose no danger to any country which has no inimical intentions towards India. We value our friendship and cooperation with your country and you personally. We hope that you will show understanding of our concern for India's security. I assure you that India will continue to work with your country in a multilateral or bilateral framework to promote the cause of nuclear disarmament”.  Although the letter of Vajpayee had no immediate impact when it comes to India avoiding the backlash from US and the international community, yet, it showed the conviction of the leader in his decision of going nuclear, which was in the larger interest of India.

The May 11, 1998, achievements will eternally be remembered as a technical feat which has helped India to be in the league of Nations and a country which the world looks up to as a force to reckon with. Today when we look back at this historic achievement, it must be remembered that there was a whole lot of uncertainty as to how the reaction of the world would affect the future of India. But then fortunately India was able to pass through those testing times of trials and tribulations of sanction regime and we have reason to be extremely happy and satisfied for accomplishing many of the objectives with which Pokhran II was conducted.

The scientific community which was involved in the accomplishment of Pokhran-II or Operation Shakti consisted of more than 100 scientists, technicians and soldiers who worked under the leadership of our former President Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, then the chief of the Defence Research and Development Organisation or DRDO. He was ably supported in this mission by Dr R Chidambaram, then the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, and Dr Anil Kakodkar, then Director of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. They successfully conducted five underground nuclear tests helping Vajpayee ji to announce to the world that India has gone nuclear. The first set of three tests, code-named Operation Shakti, were conducted on May 11, 1998, which were followed by two more tests on May, 13, thus completing the series of the nuclear tests which would make India a nuclear state. These tests involved a thermonuclear device (fusion bomb) and two fission bombs.

The two fission devices which were tested on May 11, relied on the process of nuclear fission, where heavy atomic nuclei split into lighter fragments, releasing a large amount of energy. The test also included a Thermonuclear Device, which was the main highlight of the Pokhran-II tests. This led to the detonation of a thermonuclear or fusion device. A thermonuclear device, also known as a hydrogen bomb or H-bomb, combines the processes of nuclear fission and fusion to achieve a much higher yield compared to fission devices alone. The yield of the thermonuclear device tested by India on May 11, 1998, was estimated to be around 45 kilotons. These tests were followed up with the two additional tests, which were conducted on 13 May and one of which involved a low-yield device. The low-yield device refers to a nuclear device with a relatively lower explosive yield compared to the thermonuclear device.

Speaking a couple of weeks later in Parliament, Prime Minister Vajpayee said that, “India is now a Nuclear Weapon State. This is a reality that cannot be denied. It is not a conferment that we seek; nor is it a status for others to grant.” As expected, these tests resulted in a great degree of consternation from the international community led by USA. There was also all-round global condemnations and multi-layered sanctions imposed on us which was led by the United States (US).

Fortunately, there was a willingness, consensus and cooperation among the political, diplomatic and scientific leadership on the ways and means to overcome the world reaction. Helped by the statesmanship of Vajpayee ji and his successor, Man Mohan Singh ji and supported by the extraordinary Indian diplomacy, India collectively triumphed in turning a grave crisis of post Pokhran II into an opportunity by securing legitimacy for the Indian nuclear arsenal and removing obstacles in generating nuclear power. The pro-active diplomacy crafted and pursued initially by the then External Affairs Ministry led by Jaswant Singh and followed up by the others who succeeded him, helped the nation in converting a serious crisis into an opportunity by securing legitimacy for its nuclear arsenal and removing major obstacles in generating nuclear power.  The great Indian diplomatic efforts helped us win the US confidence, which led us to the signing of the India-US nuclear deal in 2006 between Prime Minister, Dr Manmohan Singh and US President George W Bush Jr. Dr Anil Kakodkar, was one of the key members of the team who ensured that his rigid stand and that too at the cost of being called a 600-pound Gorilla by the US team, ensured that our strategic interests were completely safeguarded, while signing this nuclear deal. This deal has helped India to be mainstreamed in the nuclear arena and has given us access to the global nuclear market for the development of nuclear power.

 Unfortunately, the enactment of a liability law, which inhibited nuclear trade, and the setback globally to nuclear power on account of the Fukushima disaster has stood in the way of India benefitting fully from Pokhran II and the subsequent agreements reached. Yet it is a matter of fact that the 1998 tests and the subsequent negotiations on the nuclear deal have brought India to the nuclear mainstream and opened up the global nuclear market for development of nuclear power without signing the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). It is in recognition of this extraordinary feat that was achieved on 11 May that Prime Minister Vajpayee had announced that this day will be commemorated as National Technology Day and he had also added a new term Jai Vigyan to the already eponymous slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan, coined by Lal Bahadur Shastri to hail the contributions of Indian farmers and Indian Jawans during the time of crisis when India had just gone through the tragedy of China War in 1962 which was followed by another war with Pakistan in 1965.

The success and the impact of the Pokhran II is evidenced from the fact that the Bollywood which was normally averse to using science and technology subjects for film making used this incident to produce a melodramatic film entitled "Paramanu", which went on to become a box office success. 

Wishing you all a very happy National Technology Day

Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan and Jai Vigyan. 

Tribute to Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar

Tribute to Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar - Par Excellence Social  Reformer and Father of Indian Constitution, on his 132nd Birth anniversary. 

14th April  is connected with two distinguished Bharat Ratna Awardees and nation builders  of our nation - Dr B R Ambedkar, the father of Indian constitution, who was born on this day, 14 April, in 1891 at Mhow and Sir M Visvesvaraya, the legendary engineer who left for his heavenly abode on 14 April, 1962 in Bangalore. 

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, popularly known as BR Ambedkar, was one of the most prominent and influential social reformers of India. He was born on this day, April 14, 1891, in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh. Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar, was born as Bhim to a family of untouchables, who originally hailed from Konkan region - part of present day Maharashtra. He was the 14th Child to his parents - Ramji Sakpal and mother Bheema Bai - and only three brothers and two sisters survived. Unfortunately, Bhim lost his mother when he was just 6 years old. This was the beginning of innumerable other challenges that awaited Ambedkar as he grew up, which he had to face with a steely grit. His father and his grandfather served in the British Indian Army, and perhaps this helped Ambedkar inherit his martial background that framed his steely grit. His father retired as the Subedar from the British Indian army from the Mahar regiment in 1893, when Ambedkar was just 2 years old. For managing his large family, Ramji Sakpal had to move from Mhow to settle at Dapoli in Konkan. It was here that Bhim started his academic journey when he was admitted in the school as he turned 5. In order to earn bread for his family, Ramji Sakpal, father of Ambedkar, was not with him during those early days since had taken up a job in Satara to sustain his family. Ramji Sakpal  was a strict disciplinarian and always wanted his sons, particularly Bhimrao, to do well in academics. 

During his early days in school, Ambedkar was confronted with the hard and bitter reality of his times. He witnessed several incidents of caste discrimination and untouchability that was rampant in those days in Indian society. He went to a government school where children from lower castes, regarded as untouchables, were segregated and given little attention or assistance by the teachers and not allowed to sit inside the classroom. Students from the community had to go without water if the peon did not report for duty. The social discrimination that Ambedkar faced in childhood days had a strong bearing on Ambedkar, later in his life. It helped him develop a steely frame of mind to spearhead a sustained campaign to eradicate untouchability and fight for the rights of the oppressed class of society. He was ably supported in this endeavour by several leaders of India including 

Veer Savarakar and Mahatma Gandhi, who too championed the cause for removing the menace of untouchability. However, Ambedkar differed largely with Gandhi on the ways of combating untouchability - that is a separate story for another essay. Despite facing numerous obstacles and rampant discrimination, Ambedkar rose to become a prominent lawyer, scholar, and political leader who fought tirelessly for the rights of the Dalits and other marginalized sections of society.

Bhimrao Ambedkar’s accidental birth in the family that belonged to the Mahar caste - considered an "untouchable" or Dalit community in India at that time - made him to experience some of the worst forms of humiliating and inhuman treatment of discrimination in his early days. Fortunately, he also had a good fortune to be helped, guided and mentored by some of the best teachers from the upper caste who did not believe nor practiced such caste discrimination. One of them was a Brahim teacher with the surname Ambedkar. It is said that Mahadev Ambedkar, one of the teachers of BR Ambedkar, treated him with kindness and warmth and it it was this teacher who replaced the original family surname of Bhimrao - Sakpal - with his own surname, Ambedkar in the school records. Thus the name of Ambedkar for Bhim, not only entered in his academic records but would go down in the history as one of best remembered names in the annals of Indian history.

After competing his early school in his native village in Konkan, Bhimrao Ambedkar and his family moved to Bombay (now Mumbai) and it was here that Ambedkar laid the foundation for his tryst with his strong academic achievements. As was the practice during those days, Ambedkar married Ramabai in 1906 when he was 15 and Ramabai nine years old. This however, did not deter him in his academic pursuits as he passed the matriculation examination in 1907 and entered the Elphinstone College the following year, becoming the first person from an untouchable community to do so. Despite his interest in Sanskrit, Ambedkar was not permitted to study Sanskrit by his upper class teacher and instead he was compelled to chose Persian. Genius that Bhimarao was, he ended up scoring highest marks in Persian. He passed his matriculation in 1907, creating a milestone for untouchables in India. This was the beginning of his innumerable other achievements that were to follow to inspire his people. 

Although Ambedkar wanted to continue his studies financial constraints of his family had compelled Ambedkar to take up a job in textile mills, which had come up in large numbers in Bombay. Fortunately, Mr Krishna Arjun Keluskar, one of his early benefactors, who was the Principal of Wilson High School helped Ambedkar to get a personal meeting with the Maharaja of Baroda, Sir Sayaji Rao Gaekwad. This was a turning point in the life of Ambedkar. Inspired by the intellect of the boy, the Maharaja of Baroda gave him a scholarship of Rs 25 per month, a large amount during those days. This scholarship not only helped young Ambedkar but also his family, which soon shifted to a relatively larger chawl - a 2 room apartment in Parel. Ambedkar, helped with this scholarship, passed his BA in 1912 from the Elphinstone college.  This achievement automatically earned him a position of a Lieutenant in the Baroda State Army. But then destiny had different plan for Ambedkar, who had gladly accepted this position and had gone and joined this job in Baroda. 

Within a fortnight of his joining for the job in Baroda, Ambedkar received a telegram that his father had become critically ill in Bombay. His love for his father. made him to leave his job in Baroda to be with his father. His father could not survive for long and died soon thereafter in February 1913. It is said that Ambedkar was inconsolable on that day. Ambedkar then got the best break of his career.  In June 1913, the Maharaja of Baroda announced that he will be sponsoring some deserving students to the United States of America for higher studies at the Columbia University at state expense. This award included a handsome scholarship of £11.50 (Sterling) per month for three years. On hearing this, Ambedkar took the earliest opportunity of meeting the Maharaja to express his desire to be given a chance to avail of this opportunity. He was selected along with three others to study in Columbia University, USA. He studied diverse subjects, political science, moral philosophy, anthropology, sociology and economics and it is believed that he put in 18 hours a day. He passed his MA exam in June 1915 from the Columbia University, majoring in Economics, with Sociology, History, Philosophy and Anthropology as other subjects of study. His thesis was titled ‘ Administration and Finance of the East India Company’. He also presented a paper entitled ‘ Castes in India, their mechanism, Genesis and Development’, during his study in US. 

It was at the Columbia University that much of his political thought took form, particularly under the influence of Professor John Dewey, one of Americas premier intellectuals during the first half of the twentieth century, whose writings ‘about democratic theory and practice’ have shaped and influenced debates in academic and practical quarters across the world. for Dr Ambedkar in one of his writings has said that ‘ the best friends I have had in life were some of my classmates at Columbia and my great professors John Dewey, James Shitwell, Edwin Seligman, and James Harvey Robinson’. This was a golden period for Ambedkar, at the Columbia University. Besides his thesis, it is said that Ambedkar started his doctoral thesis ‘ National Dividend of India - A Historic  and Analytical study’, while he was still at the Columbia university. Unfortunately, he lost whatever he had written when he was returning back to India, since his ship was hit by a torpedo during the World War I. Ambedkar eventually reworked on the same thesis which he submitted as his PhD thesis in economics in 1925 under Prof Seligman. His thesis was titled titled ‘ The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India : A study in the provincial decentralisation of imperial finance. 

After completing his MA in US he left for England in 1916 for doing his Bar at Law and also enrolled at the London School of Economics. His stay in London too was made possible courtesy the Maharaja of Baroda who had allowed him to continue his study in England at the state cost. Unfortunately the Deewan of Baroda stopped his scholarship and he was forced to come back to India and serve in Baroda. Fortunately, Dr Ambedkar had managed to get permission to join back within next four years to study in the LSE and also complete his law degree. Ambedkar became the first Dalit to receive a doctorate in economics from a foreign university and he also earned a law degree and was called to the Bar at Gray's Inn in 1922

The World War I, perhaps, had forced the Diwan of Baroda to call back Ambedkar to India. On his return to India Ambedkar was obliged to work for Baroda. The social discrimination and isolation followed him at his work in Baroda even in the hotel where he was staying. This forced Ambedkar to return back to Bombay in November 1916. After serving for some time in Bombay, Ambedkar became a Professor of Political Economy in the Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics in 1916. He was very popular with his students, yet he continued to face discrimination from his colleagues. It was during this period that Dr BR Ambedkar started taking greater interest in politics since he was invited to testify before the Southborough Committee, which was preparing the Government of India Act 1919. It was during this hearing that Dr Ambedkar argued with passion for creating separate electorates and for introducing reservations for untouchables and other religious communities. This experience to work for the social welfare of the oppressed class helped him to begin a publication of the weekly ‘Mooknayak’ in Mumbai which he started in 1920 with the help of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, the Maharaj of Kolhapur.

A social reformer, the Maharaja of Kolhapur played a pioneering role in opening up education and employment to people of all castes. Ambedkar continued to fight for justice for the untouchables in the years that followed, as a practicing lawyer and so also as a social reformer. In 1924, Ambedkar founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, a social organization that worked for the upliftment of the Dalits. The organization provided education and employment opportunities for the Dalits and worked to eradicate caste-based discrimination. Ambedkar also founded a newspaper, Mooknayak, to spread awareness about the issues faced by the Dalits. By 1927, he decided to launch an active movement against untouchability by demanding rightful access to public drinking water resources and the right to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town. His fight for social justice for the untouchables and other oppressed class did not go unnoticed by the British. He was appointed to the Bombay Presidency Committee to work with the Simon Commission in 1925.

While the Simon Commission had faced protests across India and its report was largely ignored, Dr Ambedkar himself wrote a separate set of constitutional recommendations for the future. The scholarship of this recommendation ensured that Dr Ambedkar earned an invite to attend the Second Round Table Conference in London in 1932. Mahatma Gandhi had a differing opinion to Dr Ambedkar and he was opposed to a separate electorate for untouchables believing that this would split the nation. In the same year, 1932, the British announced a Communal Award of a separate electorate, Gandhi ji protested by fasting while imprisoned in the Yerwada Central Jail of Poona. India’s politics was at an impasse over separate electorates for the depressed classes, a demand by Ambedkar that Gandhi was strongly opposed to and so did the Congress. In order to create fissure among the Dalits, the Congress party pitted a highly popular Cricket player from Bombay, Mr apakva kar Baloo, a Chamar, who was a Gandhian, against Ambedkar. Baloo supported Gandhi’s fast and opposed Ambedkar. When Gandhi’s health deteriorated, Baloo and Tamil leader MC Rajah pressed on Ambedkar to accept a compromise, that of reserved electorates. Ambedkar relented, and Baloo, an unlikely leader, signed on the landmark 1932 Poona Pact. With the signing of Poona Pact Gandhi ji ended his fast and Dr Ambedkar dropped his demand for a separate electorate. This whole episode had created a simmering discontent between the Congress and Dr Ambedkar and so also the difference between him and Gandhi ji. 

This divide between Dr Ambe and Gandhi and the Congress party once again came to the fore during the elections to the Bombay Assembly. Baloo was pitted against Ambedkar in this election. By then, the cricketer had also publicly opposed Ambedkar’s decision to convert out of Hinduism, calling it a suicidal move. The Congress believed that the popularity of the game of Cricket, and the achievements of the Baloo brothers in cricket would result in a lot of the votes splitting between Baloo and Ambedkar. Ramachandra Guha highlights this in one of his books - ‘The Corner of Foreign Field’. He adds that Baloo appeared deeply reluctant to fight Ambedkar, according to his nephew and son. According to the Bombay Chronicle, Baloo told a rally in January 1937 that he wasn’t interested in fighting elections and that he agreed without knowing which seat he would contest from. In the end, Baloo lost narrowly, 11,225 votes to Ambedkar’s 13,245. All these machinations of the Congress to oppose and defeat Ambedkar though were foiled but the difference between Gandhi, Congress and Ambedkar continued to live on. 

In the meantime Babasaheb was appointed principal of the Government Law College in Mumbai in 1935. He continued in that position for two years. It was during this period that Ambedkar lost his wife Ramabai. This opened up a  beginning of a new chapter in Ambedkar’s life. His wife was a believer and practitioner of the Hindu traditions and rituals. Tired of fighting for the equal rights and for removal of untouchability from the Hindu society, in which his wife had great faith, Dr Ambedkar took a major decision to convert. On 13 October, 1935, Dr Ambedkar announced his intention to convert to a different religion. He also exhorted his followers to leave Hinduism, while speaking at the Yeola Conversion Conference in Nasik and repeated his message all through the country. In the very next year, 1936, he founded his own political party called the Independent Labour Party. His party contested the 1937 Bombay election to the Central Legislative Assembly for the 13 reserved and 4 general seats, securing 11 and 3 seats respectively. He served on the Defence Advisory Committee and the Viceroy's Executive Council as minister for Labour during this period. This is also the period when Babasaheb wrote extensively on the condition of Dalits and the caste system in Hindu society. During this period, Babasaheb renamed his party as the Scheduled Castes Federation, which later evolved into its current form the Republican Party of India. Dr Ambedkar was initially elected to the Constituent Assembly from Bengal but his seat went to Pakistan following the Partition of India. He was subsequently elected from the Bombay Presidency in place of a senior jurist Jaykar, ahead of Shri GV Mavalankar. All through this period of his political involvement, Dr Ambedkar had differing opinion with that of Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress. 

India became an Independent nation on 15 August, 1947 and Babasaheb Ambedkar was appointed as the Union Law Minister and Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, which was given the responsibility to write India's new Constitution. Dr Ambedkar  served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly. He was primarily responsible for the drafting of the Constitution and ensuring that it provided equal rights and opportunities for all citizens, regardless of their caste, religion, or gender. His contribution to the Constitution is widely regarded as one of the most significant in Indian history and therefore he is regarded as the father of our constitution. 

The Constitution of India - the connect of which resonates with all of us since it is ‘of the people, for the people and by the people’ - was framed by the Constituent Assembly of India, established by the members of the provincial assemblies elected by the people of India. Dr Sachidanand Sinha was the first president of the Constituent Assembly. Later, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected its president. Dr BR Ambedkar, was chosen to be the chairman of its Drafting Committee, and is therefore befittingly considered the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. The Constituent Assembly began its primary objectives of framing of the constitution with its first sitting on 9th December, 1946. It took nearly three years  (2 years and 11 months) during which the Constituent Assembly sat for 11 sessions spread over a period of 166 days in finalising the Indian Constitution which was drafted by the Constitution Drafting Committee, under the chairmanship of Dr BR Ambedkar. On 26 November 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India which came into force on 26 January 1950.  The original text of our constitution was made up of 395 articles in 22 parts and eight schedules.

Our Constitution provides a comprehensive and dynamic framework to guide and govern our country, keeping in view the extraordinary diversity of our vast nation with her unique social, cultural, religious and innumerable other diversities which are central to our motherland. 

All through this period Dr Ambedkar continued to work tirelessly even though he was suffering from Diabetes. This took a heavy toll on his health. Dr Baba Saheb Ambedkar, died in his sleep on 6 December 1956 at Delhi. He was cremated according to the Buddhist tradition and his cremation was attended by about 5 lakh people. It was of great satisfaction to Dr Ambedkar that the Constitution that he had drafted had started bringing about changes on the ground and the Dalits and Adivasis had started getting reservations as a matter of right while Dr Ambedkar was alive. He was happy to witness Dalits and Adivasis becoming Members of Parliament. In the passing away of Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar India had lost one of its greatest great heroes, who notwithstanding the unending adversities and caste discrimination that he faced and fought all his life, he never gave up. The fruits of his unending struggle are being reaped by the people and the nation, which will remain eternally grateful to this great son of India. It was no wonder that when his mortal remains reached Mumbai, a sea of humanity spilled on to the streets. The crowd was so big that the administration found it impossible to control it. A record 500 thousand plus people attended the last rites of Dr Ambedkar, who continues to be literally worshipped in India. 

Long live Dr Ambedkar.