Blood Moon 2025: From Aryabhata’s Genius to Tonight’s Spectacle

 

Tonight (7–8 September, 2025), the skies over India and much of the world will stage a grand celestial spectacle — a total lunar eclipse, popularly called the Blood Moon, which is already being hyped across media. Though nit as spectacular as the Total Solar Eclipse, the Lunar Eclipse is special because of its longevity in its occurrence and also the fact that it comes with no risk of seeing with naked eye. Tonight, moon, the lone satellite of our planet earth, which has been so romanticised by the Bollywood movies in the past with soulful melodies sung in honour of the full moon, will be bathed in its coppery red hue for more than an hour – 82 minutes to be precise. The lunar eclipse, and the so called blood moon, will be visible to the naked eye across India and can be seen without any special eye protective wearables.

Courtesy wide publicity by the media and special arrangements made in most cities by science centres, and planetariums, this astronomical moment of awe and wonder is sure to attract many to look at the night sky to witness this celestial theatrical play between our planet earth its satellite, the moon and our Sun, whose movements unfold tonight’s celestial spectacle. Unfortunately, there will still be many, pressured by the astrologers, who may believe in age-old myths and rituals; but for science communicators, like yours truly, it is an opportunity to celebrate both nature’s precision and India’s scientific heritage.

Cosmic Clockwork: Geometry of Lunar and Solar Eclipses

What makes eclipses so enchanting is the delicate geometry of the Earth–Moon–Sun system. The Earth, nearly 12,742 km in diameter, is about four times larger than the Moon, which measures 3,474 km across. Yet because the Moon is so much closer — only about 3.84 lakh km from Earth — while the Sun, though 400 times wider than the Moon (about 1.39 million km across), is also about 400 times farther away (roughly 15 crore km), they appear almost the same size in our sky. This cosmic coincidence allows the Moon to neatly cover the Sun during solar eclipses, and lets the Earth’s much larger shadow engulf the Moon during lunar eclipses. All this is orchestrated by the steady motions of rotation and revolution: the Earth spinning on its axis once every 24 hours, the Moon circling Earth every 27 days, and the Earth orbiting the Sun once a year. Tomorrow’s total lunar eclipse is a direct outcome of this elegant celestial clockwork.

Blood Moon

·    Tonight’s, lunar eclipse will commence around 8.58 PM and end at 2.25 AM on 8 September.  The totality of the eclipse, called the blood moon phase will occur between 11PM to 12.22 AM. During the Totality of the lunar eclipse, the moon will not vanish into blackness but glows red. This blood red appearance is a result of the Rayleigh scattering — the same effect that makes our sunsets crimson. As sunlight passes through Earth’s atmosphere, the shorter blue wavelengths are filtered out, while the longer red wavelengths are refracted into the umbra, softly painting the lunar surface in shades of red and orange. Depending on atmospheric conditions — dust, pollution — the Moon will appear bright copper or an eerie dark maroon.

Tomorrow’s eclipse will be one of the longest of the decade. It provides a great opportunity for Mumbaikars and others from across the subcontinent, to gaze at the night sky and look up and marvel at natures wonders.

Supermoons, Blue Moons, and Media Hype

The media often headlines celestial occurrences under captivating headlines Supermoon, Blood Moon, Super Blue Blood Moon. These terms are media inventions — catchy labels designed to capture attention in an age of short attention spans. They are briefly described below.

• A Supermoon occurs when a full Moon coincides with the Moon’s closest approach to Earth, making it appear up to 14% brighter and 7% larger.
• A Blue Moon is simply the second full Moon in a calendar month.
• A Blood Moon is the reddish Moon during totality, which is happening tonight

When all three occur together, as in January 2018, it is hyped as a “Super Blue Blood Moon.” As Director of the Nehru Science Centre at the time, I remember how we hosted public viewing sessions for that rare trifecta — the first in 35 years. Crowds gathered, telescopes were trained, and for a moment, science and wonder blended seamlessly under the Mumbai night sky.

Similarly, on Buddha Purnima, May 26, 2021, amid the gloom of COVID-19 lockdowns, we live-streamed the Supermoon and lunar eclipse for thousands of viewers. Despite Mumbai’s cloudy skies, the brief glimpses we managed felt like precious gifts in dark times.

These past experiences remind me that while hype sells, it also brings people closer to science. Even exaggerated labels have their use — they make the public look up at the heavens.

Myths, Legends, and the Indian Tradition

For millennia, eclipses have evoked a mixture of fear and reverence. In Indian mythology, the demon Rahu is said to swallow the Sun or Moon, causing an eclipse. According to the Puranas, Rahu, having deceitfully consumed a drop of Amrit during the churning of the ocean, was beheaded by Vishnu. The immortal head became Rahu, and the body became Ketu, forever chasing the Sun and Moon across the sky. Such stories infused eclipses with ritual significance. Even today, many households in India observe Sutak, a period of fasting and ritual purity before and during eclipses. People avoid cooking, eating, or making important decisions. While these practices persist, it is also true that India has always nurtured a parallel, scientific tradition and the mythical beliefs and practices are gradually fading out from society, courtesy the public awareness programmes conducted by science communicators, science centres and planetariums.

Aryabhata: The First Indian to Demystify Eclipses

Nearly 1,500 years ago, ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata (476 CE) revolutionized our understanding of celestial mechanics. In his magnum opus, the Aryabhatiya, he:

• Asserted that the Earth is spherical and rotates on its axis once a day.
• Dismissed Rahu and Ketu as mythological constructs, explaining eclipses as shadows of the Earth and Moon.
• Provided mathematical algorithms to predict the timing and size of eclipses with remarkable accuracy.

Aryabhata’s ideas were bold, often ridiculed by contemporaries including Varahamihira and Brahmagupta, who clung to geocentric orthodoxy. Yet his insights endured. Later Indian astronomers like Lalla and Bhaskara I expanded his methods, and through translations, Aryabhata’s models influenced Islamic and European astronomy.

When we watch midnight Blood Moon, we are witnessing precisely the phenomenon Aryabhata described — shadows cast in celestial alignment. To think that such predictive knowledge was developed in India a millennium before Copernicus is a source of pride and inspiration for all Indians.

Long Journey of Eclipses in Science

Eclipses have long been scientific laboratories. The Total solar eclipse of 1868, observed in Guntur, India, led to the discovery of helium — the only element first identified outside Earth. The 1919 total solar eclipse famously confirmed Einstein’s theory of general relativity, as starlight was shown to bend around the Sun’s gravity.

Even today, astronomers study eclipses to better understand atmospheric conditions, both terrestrial and lunar. Each event is not just a spectacle but also an opportunity to test, measure, and learn.

From Fear to Celebration Change in Public Perception

What strikes me most is how India’s relationship with eclipses has transformed over time from fear to celebration. In earlier times, eclipses were feared as bad omens and roads were seen empty and people closed indoors during eclipses. But today, with rising awareness, they are celebrated as community events. Science centres, planetariums astronomy clubs, schools, and citizen groups organise watch parties, often with telescopes and live commentary. One of my school alumni, Dinesh Badagandi operates a fleet of mobile planetariums under the banner of Tare Zameen Par across Karnataka and adjoining states to create awareness on astronomy and space and an impact assessment study commissioned by the state Government of Karnataka has emphasises its positive impact across the schools in the state of Karnataka.

I am reminded of Prof. Yash Pal, whose live TV commentary during the 1995 Total Solar Eclipse helped millions shed superstition and embrace the eclipse as a natural wonder. His work, and that of countless science communicators, has turned eclipses from portents of doom into festivals of learning. I fondly recall that during an annular solar eclipse in Delhi, the National Science Centre, of which I was the Director had made special arrangement for viewing the solar eclipse and one of the arrangements included a free breakfast for all the visitors, main aim was to dispel the myth of food getting poisoned during eclipse. Almost every visitor, some of them after initial hesitation, joined us in taking food during the eclipse helping bust the myths associated with eclipses.

Tomorrow’s event gives us another chance to continue this tradition — to inspire young minds, to foster curiosity, and to remind ourselves of our place in the cosmos.

 A Midnight Invitation

As midnight approaches on September 7, 2025, step outside. Look up at the Moon as it turns red in Earth’s shadow. Think of the myths of Rahu, the genius of Aryabhata, the experiments of modern scientists, and be happy to be blessed to find our own unique place in this vast universe with billions of galaxies each having billions of their own solar systems with their own planets and their moons, yet as we know today we are perhaps alone in this universe and let us all be proud of our position and let us all join hands in protecting our planet.

The Lunar eclipse which we will witness is not just a spectacle for our eyes, but also for the mind and spirit. A reminder that the same Moon that inspired poets, puzzled ancient sky-watchers, and challenged mathematicians still shines (reflected light) upon us, timeless and unchanging.

So tonight, let us celebrate not fear. Let us observe not merely with our eyes, but with wonder and gratitude. For in the story of an eclipse, we glimpse both the poetry of myth and the precision of science — and the eternal human quest to understand the heavens.

Happy viewing

The Guru Shishya Parampara: From Shiva’s Guru Gita to India’s Science Labs, Guru’s teachings Endure

Every year on 5th September, we in India pay tribute to our teachers by celebrating the day as Teachers Day, in memory of Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a renowned philosopher and the second President of India, whose birthday, 5^th September, was chosen to honour his belief that education is the bedrock of society and teachers are its architects. Dr. Radhakrishnan believed in the importance of education and the role of teachers in fostering education. When some of his students sought his permission to celebrate his birthday, Dr Radhakrishnan, suggested that instead of celebrating his personal birthday, he suggested that this day should be dedicated to the selfless service of all the teachers in India. Accordingly, 5 September 1962, his 77th birthday, marked the first observance of Teachers' Day and the tradition has continued ever since. This day provides us an opportunity to recognise the vital role the teachers play in shaping the lives and future of students.

This day also reminds us that in our ancient civilisation, teaching was never seen as a mere profession—it was a vocation, almost a sacred duty. This is evidenced by a masterpiece timeless invocation of a verse which captures this spirit:

“Gurur Brahma, Gurur Vishnu, Gurur Devo Maheshwara,

Gurur Sakshat Param Brahma, Tasmai Shri Gurave Namah.”

(The Guru is the Creator, the Preserver, and the Destroyer. The Guru is undoubtedly the Supreme Reality. To that illustrious Guru, I bow in reverence.) The above text is part of the Guru Gita of the Skanda Purana. This sacred text is presented as a dialog between Goddess Uma (Parvathi) and Lord Shiva, where Lord Shiva explains from the mount Kailasa to his consort the significance of the Guru in the path to Spiritual liberation.

Living up to this tradition of reverence for Guru was the brilliant physicist Nobel laureate, Sir C.V. Raman. In 1954, the first Bharat Ratna awards were announced in India. The illustrious list of the awardees included Dr. Radhakrishnan in whose honour we celebrate this day, C. Rajagopalachari, and Prof C.V. Raman. An anecdotal reference cited by Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, provides an insight on Prof Raman as a dedicated teacher. Dr Kalam recalls in many of his lectures, which has also been covered in Indian Express, that an invitation was sent to Raman by the Rashtrapati Bhavan to receive the nation’s highest civilian award, Bharat Ratna. Yet, Raman sent a polite letter of regret, informing that he would not be able to make it to the ceremony. The reason was not a prior international commitment which he had or ill health. It was a commitment that Raman - presumed he had, to one of his students, a devoted PhD student whose thesis submission deadline coincided with the Bharat Ratna receiving ceremony of Prof Raman. For Raman, his duty as the PhD guide of his student was paramount, even over a Bharat Ratna reception award for him.

This anecdote, chronicled by President APJ Abdul Kalam, is a story of dedication of Raman to his PhD student. Dr. Kalam called it the finest demonstration of Raman the teachers’ devotion to his student. For Raman, the truest award was not the medal which would be conferred to him in a monumental ceremonial hall, but the successful completion of a student’s work.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Sir CV Raman’s nephew, carried forward the same ethos of commitment of the teacher to their students to another level in his own career as one of the twentieth century’s greatest astrophysicists. His scientific journey itself illustrates how brilliance can coexist with humility. In the 1930s, as a student barely in his twenties at Cambridge, Chandrasekhar worked out the physics of electron degeneracy pressure inside dying stars. He showed that above a certain critical mass—now immortalized as the Chandrasekhar Limit—a white dwarf could not support itself against gravity and must collapse further, ultimately giving rise to neutron stars or black holes.

When Chandrasekhar presented his profound work before the Royal Astronomical Society in 1935, his senior contemporary, Sir Arthur Eddington, one of the greatest astrophysicists of his time, ridiculed it publicly as “stellar buffoonery.” The humiliation in front of a distinguished audience coerced Chandrasekhar to leave the U.K. and take up a position in the United States at the University of Chicago. Chandra joined at the Yerkes Observatory, Chicago University in 1937 where spent more than a quarter of a century, a large part of his scientific career. Despite the personal humiliation, Chandra never spoke disrespectfully of Eddington, continuing to refer to him with regard and respect as his mentor and guru. It was an act of dignity rooted in the very ethos of Guru–Śhishya Parampara—to respect the lineage of knowledge even when wronged. It resonates with the epic story of reverence that Ekalavya had for his imaginary guru, Dhronacharya. The epic tale of Ekalavya, who offered his thumb as guru dakshina to Dronacharya, is the ultimate, albeit extreme, symbol of this commitment. It speaks to a reverence that places the Guru’s word above one’s own ambition. S Chandra coming from a background so deeply rooted in these Indian ethos, practiced and exemplified this ethos in his respect for Eddington, who literally had ended his career in Cambridge. Although the criticism of Eddington was a devastating blow that delayed recognition to Chandra for decades, yet Chandra never publicly expressed bitterness for Eddington. He continued to respect Eddington, acknowledging his debt to him. In this, he exhibited a grace that is the hallmark of a true shishya—understanding that the path of learning sometimes requires weathering a Guru’s imperfections.

S Chandrasekhar embodied the timeless reverence for Guru as seen in the verses Guru Gita of Skhanda Purana. Chandra’s biographer, Kameshwar Wali, based on an anecdotal reference – that has now become one of the great legends of Chandra, which President John T. Wilson loved to tell - chronicles the commitment of Chandra to his students. Prof S Chandrasekhar would drive over a hundred miles from the Yerkes Observatory to the University of Chicago every week, to teach an advanced class in astrophysics to a class of two students: T.D. Lee and C.N. Yang. His selfless investment as a Guru to his two students, honed their genius. Years later, they won the Nobel Prize in 1957 for overthrowing the fundamental law of parity—a true act of intellectual destruction of dogma, a lesson well-learned from their Guru. Lee and Young were just 32 and 37 when they won the Nobel Prize contrary to their Guru – Chandra, who had to wait for another 26 years to receive his coveted Nobel Prize, in 1983.

Dr. Kalam, a legend shaped by teachers, loved to narrate the story of his mentor, Prof. Satish Dhawan. In 1979, when the first Indian SLV-3 mission, headed by Kalam, failed it was Dhawan, the Chairman of ISRO, who faced the criticism including facing the combative press for its failure. Prof Dhawan, as a true Guru, shielded his team and his protégé Dr Kalam from criticism. A year later, when the very same mission succeeded, Dhawan credited Kalam for the success of SLV 3. In this act, Dhawan defined leadership not as command, but as service—the highest form of being a Guru.

Yet in today’s world—inundated with online tutorials, artificial intelligence, and instant information—it is fair to ask: do we still need the Guru? The answer, as India’s history and science both testify, is an unequivocal yes. The Guru has never been merely a transmitter of information. The Guru is creator, preserver, and destroyer—creator of knowledge, preserver of tradition, destroyer of ignorance and ego. The Guru is both timeless and timely, yet utterly relevant in an age of artificial intelligence.

Today, as we celebrate the Teachers Day, we are not just celebrating a profession. We are celebrating our national ethos, which continues to whisper, albeit attenuated largely, in the corridors of our premier institutes, where a professor stays back to guide a struggling student, motivates his students just as Prof MM Sharma did to one of his Shishya, Mukesh Ambani, who as a mark of his reverence to his Guru, pledged a whopping Rs 151 Crores to the ICT, where Prof MM Served. It echoes in the determination of a scientist who chooses a thesis submission over a national award.

The Guru-Shishya Parampara is India’s timeless principle for excellence. It exemplifies that the highest knowledge does not come from AI or from the vast digital resources; it must be transmitted, with compassion, integrity, and sometimes, immense personal sacrifice by the Guru to the students. From Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva, from where he passed on his wisdom to Parvati, to the laboratories where Raman and Chandrasekhar nurtured their students and future Nobel laureates, the message is consistent: a civilisation that honours its teachers ultimately honours its own future.

On this Teachers' Day, we bow to them all—Tasmai Śrī Gurave Namaḥ.

110 Years On: Remembering Henry Moseley — The Brilliant Scientist Lost to War

 

 

War is the single most idiosyncratic, disgusting beastly human greed for conquest, which if not controlled can lead to disastrous consequences as evidenced in the two World Wars. One of those millions of soldiers who made the supreme sacrifice in service of their motherland, during the World War I, was the genetically gifted genius scientist, Henry Moseley.

Today, 10 August, 2025, marks 110 years since the death of one of science’s brightest young stars — Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley. On this day in 1915, at just 27 years old, Moseley was killed by a sniper’s bullet in the trenches of Gallipoli during the First World War. His life, though brief, left an indelible mark on modern science — and his death stands as a poignant reminder of war casualties. Among the tens of millions of WWI casualties - Indian soldiers included - the ‘single most costly death of the war’ - in the words of Isaac Asimov - was that of a genetically gifted genius scientist, Henry Moseley.

Moseley’s contributions (Moseley’s Law) in the development of the modern periodic table is now legendary. In his untimely death aged 27, not just England but the whole of humanity was robbed of Moseley’s genius scientific contributions. His death is all the more poignant for what he might have achieved, had it not been for the WW1. In just 40 months of his scientific research career, Moseley laid out the basis for the modern periodic table, predicted the elements that would fill in the gaps and showed that x-rays could be a supreme analytical tool.

Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley was born on 23 November 1887 in Weymouth, Dorset, into a distinguished lineage of scientists and scholars. His father, Henry Nottidge Moseley (1844–1891), was a celebrated naturalist who participated in the HMS Challenger expedition (1872–1876), authored Notes of a Naturalist on the Challenger, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1879. Henry Nottidge himself was the son of a notable mathematician, Harry Moseley. On his mother’s side, Henry Moseley’s maternal grandfather was John Gwyn Jeffreys, a prominent biologist and conchologist, reinforcing a familial culture steeped in natural science. This intellectual heritage provided young Henry with early exposure to inquiry, field observations, and scholarly rigour. Harry, as a child, exhibited great interest in science and with his sister, painstakingly surveyed surrounding countryside to catalogue as much of the native flora and fauna as he could find. His childhood interest in science clearly foretold what great future of scientific research lies ahead.

 Education and Early Scientific Work

Moseley excelled academically in his school. A King's Scholarship led him to Eton, where he distinguished himself in mathematics and physics, before enrolling at Trinity College, Oxford in 1906, earning his BA in 1910. Following graduation, he joined Ernest Rutherford's laboratory at Manchester as a demonstrator and researcher. Rutherford’s lab was a “nursery of genius,” fostering future Nobel laureates. Under Rutherford's mentorship, Moseley explored radioactivity and then turned his focus to the nature of X-rays.

The Scientific Breakthrough: Moseley’s Law & the Modern Periodic Table

Since Mendeleev’s time, the Periodic Table (1869) relied on the concept of atomic weight. Mendeleev had examined the chemical properties of each element, and grouped those with similar properties together. However, in a few notable cases – such as that of argon and potassium – Mendeleev had to break the sequence of atomic weight to keep similar properties in the same groups. These ‘pair reversals’ raised questions on the principle of using atomic weight as the basis of the periodic table. It was not until the arrival of Moseley on the scientific scene that this problem was scientifically and rationally solved. 

Between 1913 and 1914, Moseley published pioneering papers titled The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements in Philosophical Magazine. He employed X-ray spectroscopy to map characteristic X-ray frequencies across elements, discovering a linear relation between the square root of frequency and atomic number—a relationship now known as Moseley’s law. This provided the first empirical basis for ordering the periodic table by atomic number, which revealed gaps hinting at undiscovered elements, and resolved uncertainties such as rare-earth element placement.

Moseley law proved (what Bohr and others had suspected) that the frequency of x-rays is proportional to the atomic charge. The elements could now be ordered according to atomic number and the mystery of the ‘pair reversals’ was solved thus leading to the “Modern Periodic Table”.  the basis of which is based on the atomic number and not the atomic weight. This paved the way for seeing the gaps in the periodic table, where elements of a certain atomic number were missing. Peers immediately recognized the import of this discovery. Robert Millikan deemed Moseley’s work “one of the dozen most brilliant … in the history of science,” and it became central to early atomic models. In the process Moseley had laid the groundwork for a vast treasure hunt, which were to be discovered much later by the chemists after more than 30 years of searching for the missing elements his method had predicted.

Enlistment of Moseley in WWI and Death at Gallipoli

With the outbreak of World War, I, despite urging from his advisor Rutherford to remain in research, Moseley enlisted and joined the Royal Engineers. It was on 10 August 1915, as a Second Lieutenant and signals officer, he was killed by a sniper’s bullet in the battle of Gallipoli, while sending a message on 10 August 1915—just shy of his 28th birthday.

Moseley was touring Australia for a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, with his mother, when the news of the declaration of war reached Australia. Moseley felt it was his duty to join his soldier brethren’s to fight for his country. He did not heed to the advice of his mother, Henry Rutherford, friends and family who tried persuading him to change his mind. Unfortunately, Moseley’s patriotism prevailed and Moseley left Australia on a ship for San Francisco from where he caught the first train to New York. From there he went home to England and enlisted his name in the British Army and obtained a commission as lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was posted to Gallipoli to join ANZAC for the Gallipoli campaign.

It was during the curation of the “Cricket Connects: India Australia” exhibition that I had the honour to research about the historic connect that Indians shared with the Australians, particularly during the Battle of Gallipoli in WWI, where the Indian soldiers fought shoulder to shoulder as team ANZAC (Australia New Zealand Army Corps) with the Ottoman forces. It was during this research that I studied about involvement of Moseley in this battle. Second Lieutenant and signals officer Henry Moseley was part of ANZAC. While the battle itself was a defeat for the ANZAC, the ANZAC were relentless in their heroic gallantry and displayed incredible valour, courage and endurance in the most hostile environment in which this battle was fought.

The Battle of Sari Bair: August Offensive

The Gallipoli Campaign had devolved into a fierce stalemate by mid-1915. In early August, the Allies (Ottoman) launched the August Offensive—a collective push to seize the Sari Bair ridge and break the deadlock by capturing high ground suffocating ANZAC positions. Heavy fighting occurred from 6 August onward, including costly diversionary attacks at Lone Pine, The Nek, and Suvla Bay landings. Initial gains—such as temporary Allied holds on Chunuk Bair and Hill Q—were nullified by Ottoman counterattacks.

The Battle of Sari Bair ended in Ottoman victory and Allied withdrawal. Tactical errors, supply issues, miscommunication, and contested terrain undermined the offensive. At Hill 60, the final major assault from 21 to 29 August, Allied forces again failed to link Suvla and ANZAC positions, suffering heavy casualties throughout. It was during this fight that Moseley was killed on 10 August, 1915.

The archival record of Moseley’s short but luminous career—his notebooks, spectral plots, university correspondence, and battlefield telegrams—illustrate not just personal tragedy but the societal cost of war. His death triggered reflection in British scientific circles, prompting arguments that scientific talent should be shielded from frontline service. This influenced later policies in WWII, where scientists were mobilized for strategic innovation (e.g., radar, medicine, code-breaking) rather than combat.

Henry G. J. Moseley’s lineage, work, and death embody both profound creative promise and wartime sacrifice. His early demise at Gallipoli, during one of WWI’s defining failures, serves as a poignant “never again”—a plea that scientific genius should be protected, not lost. Moseley did not die in vain; his legacy endures in the atomic number, the modern periodic table, and our collective memory of what was—and what peace must preserve.

 

Eightieth Year of the Nagasaki Bombing - Never Again

 

Hiroshima Nagasaki : Never Again

Today, August 9, 2025, marks the 80th year of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, a sombre milestone in human history. On August 9, 1945, three days after the “Little Boy” uranium bomb devastated the city of Hiroshima, the United States dropped their second atom bomb, a plutonium-based atomic bomb, codenamed “Fat Man,” on Nagasaki. This catastrophic event, alongside the Hiroshima bombing, hastened the end of World War II but left an indelible scar on humanity, prompting a global resolve to prevent such a tragedy from recurring. As we commemorate this anniversary, it is time to reflect on the details of the Nagasaki bombing, the specifics of the “Fat Man” bomb, the experiences of those involved, and the broader implications for the world order.

The Nagasaki Bombing and the “Fat Man”

On August 9, 1945, at 11:02 a.m., the B-29 bomber Bockscar, piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney, dropped the “Fat Man” bomb over Nagasaki. The bomb, a plutonium-239 implosion-type device, had a yield of approximately 21 kilotons of TNT, slightly more powerful than the 15-kiloton “Little Boy” used on Hiroshima. Unlike Hiroshima, where the bomb detonated almost directly above the city centre, “Fat Man” exploded 1,650 feet above the Urakami Valley, a secondary target after cloud cover obscured the primary target, Kokura. The hilly terrain of Nagasaki partially contained the blast, but the devastation was still immense.

The “Fat Man” bomb was 10.7 feet long, 5 feet in diameter, and weighed around 9210 Kg. Its complex implosion design, developed under the Manhattan Project, required precise engineering to compress the plutonium core and trigger a nuclear chain reaction. The bomb’s detonation instantly killed an estimated 35,000–40,000 people, with total deaths reaching approximately 74,000 by the end of 1945 due to injuries, burns, and radiation poisoning. The Urakami Valley, an industrial area was obliterated, including the Urakami Cathedral, a symbol of Nagasaki’s Christian community.

Nagasaki’s unique geography and the bomb’s off-target detonation mitigated some of the destruction compared to Hiroshima’s flatter terrain. However, the human toll was staggering. Survivors, known as hibakusha, faced severe burns, radiation sickness, and long-term health effects like cancer and leukemia. Artifacts from the bombing—melted glass, charred clothing, and stopped clocks—bear witness to the instantaneous horror, much like those preserved from Hiroshima.

Japan’s Surrender

The Nagasaki bombing, combined with Hiroshima’s destruction and the Soviet Union’s declaration of war on Japan on August 8, 1945, compelled Japan’s leadership to surrender. On August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan’s capitulation in a radio broadcast, the first time most Japanese citizens heard his voice. The formal surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri, officially ending World War II. The dual atomic bombings demonstrated the unprecedented destructive power of nuclear weapons, forcing Japan to confront the reality of total defeat and influencing its decision to surrender unconditionally.

The Pilot: Charles W. Sweeney

Major Charles W. Sweeney, a 25-year-old pilot, commanded Bockscar during the Nagasaki mission. Unlike Colonel Paul Tibbets, who piloted the Enola Gay for the Hiroshima bombing and expressed no regret, Sweeney’s reflections reveal a more complex emotional response. In his 1997 memoir, War’s End: An Eyewitness Account of America’s Last Atomic Mission, Sweeney described the mission as a military necessity to end the war and save lives by avoiding a prolonged invasion of Japan. However, he also expressed unease about the human cost. Sweeney noted the challenges of the Nagasaki mission, including mechanical issues with Bockscar and the need to divert to the secondary target due to weather conditions. After the war, he defended the bombings but acknowledged the haunting images of destruction, particularly the suffering of civilians. Sweeney’s experience underscores the moral weight carried by those who executed such missions, even as they believed in their strategic necessity.

J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project

J. Robert Oppenheimer, the scientific director of the Manhattan Project, oversaw the development of both “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” at Los Alamos, New Mexico. The Nagasaki bombing, as the second use of a nuclear weapon, deepened Oppenheimer’s growing unease about the destructive power he had helped unleash. After witnessing the first successful test of a plutonium bomb (the “Gadget”) at Trinity in July 1945, Oppenheimer famously quoted the Bhagavad Gita: “Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.” The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki solidified his concerns about the ethical implications of nuclear weapons.

By 1947, Oppenheimer became an advocate for international control of nuclear arms, opposing the development of the more powerful hydrogen bomb. His vocal stance against nuclear proliferation led to his 1954 security clearance hearing, where he was accused of disloyalty during the McCarthy era, a fallout of his efforts to curb the nuclear arms race. The Nagasaki bombing, in particular, reinforced Oppenheimer’s belief that humanity must avoid future nuclear conflicts, shaping his later career as a cautionary voice in the nuclear age.

The Fallout on the World Order

The Nagasaki bombing, alongside Hiroshima, fundamentally altered the global order. The demonstrated power of nuclear weapons ushered in the Cold War, defined by a nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The bombings established the U.S. as the preeminent global superpower but also introduced a new era of existential fear. The creation of NATO, the Warsaw Pact, and subsequent nuclear proliferation by countries like the Soviet Union (1949), the UK (1952), and others stemmed from the strategic lessons of 1945.

The bombings also spurred international efforts to control nuclear weapons. The United Nations, founded in 1945, prioritized non-proliferation, leading to treaties like the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968 and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996. However, India refused to sign these treaties citing its national strategic interests. The bombings’ legacy continues to shape global security policies, with nuclear arsenals serving as deterrents while raising the specter of mutually assured destruction.

Reflections on the 80th Anniversary

Reflecting on the 80th anniversary of the Nagasaki bombing, the lessons remain stark. The “Hiroshima-Nagasaki Never Again” exhibition, which I coordinated in 1998 at the National Science Centre, Delhi, vividly captured the horrors of nuclear devastation. The Nagasaki panels, like those for Hiroshima, displayed melted artefacts, survivor testimonies, and images of the Urakami Valley’s destruction, reinforcing the human cost of nuclear warfare. Keeping the national policy in mind, I decided to exclude panels critical of India’s stance on the NPT and CTBT from the exhibition. During the 75^th year of Hiroshima bombing, I had posted a detailed blog where I have narrated in detail about the exhibition and the National Science Centre, featuring on the editorial page. This exhibition helped me in understanding the delicate balance that we have to play as curators, balancing the decision between national interests and global disarmament efforts.

Nagasaki, like Hiroshima, has rebuilt itself into a vibrant, modern city, yet the scars of 1945 endure. The Nagasaki Peace Park and Atomic Bomb Museum stand as reminders of the tragedy, urging humanity to prioritize peace. The experiences of Sweeney and Oppenheimer highlight the personal and ethical dilemmas faced by those involved in the bombings, while the global fallout reshaped international relations.

As we mark this 80th anniversary, let us renew our commitment to ensuring that nuclear energy serves humanity’s progress—through medicine, energy, and research—rather than its destruction. May Nagasaki’s suffering, alongside Hiroshima’s, remain a solemn warning: never again.

Images : Courtesy Wikipaedia and National Science Centre Delhi

 

Birth Centenary of Dr MS Swaminathan (7 August 2025): Father of the Green Revolution

 

7 August 2025 marks the birth centenary of Dr. Mankombu Sambasivan Swaminathan - popularly referred to as MS Swaminathan – an agriculture scientist of international eminence, who is befittingly referred to as the father of the Green Revolution in India. His exemplary works were marked by his unwavering commitment to addressing and solving the ‘ship to mouth’ existential challenges of the Independent India which was suffering from hunger and poverty. Unfortunately, Dr Swaminathan passed away in his native town, Chennai, on 28 September 2023, less than two years shy of his birth centenary. Dr Swaminathan lived a complete life dedicated to helping the nation, more particularly the farming and agriculture community. It is therefore no wonder that while paying tribute to Swaminathan on his demise, the Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi, called him the “Kisan Vigyanik”, a farmer scientist.

 To understand the impact of the contributions of Dr. Swaminathan, it is pertinent to look at the lives lost due to starvation in the 1943 Bengal famine. An estimated 3 million people lost their lives during the infamous Bengal famine, which is attributed to the insensitivity of Winston Churchill, his policy and his administration. Things were no different in the 18^th and 19th centuries either, when we were under the colonial rule. In the famine that struck South India in 1877 millions of lives were lost. Records reveal that in the districts of Bellary, Kurnool, and Cuddapah, the loss of lives from this famine - in one year - was reported to be between 21 to 27 percent of the population of these districts. This was also true for other districts in the South. At the end of 1876, according to British maintained records, Salem District had a population of 2,129,850 people. In a report that highlighted the impact of the 1877 famine, it says “On the 14th of March, 1878, the population of the district of Salem was reduced to 1,559,876”. More than one-fourth of the people – nearly six lac people - perished due to the 1877 famine. A similar number of loss of lives were reported from the districts of Mysore.

There are records that suggest that famine struck India from almost the beginning of British colonial rule. In 1770, over one million people died of starvation in Bengal, just 13 years after Robert Clive’s seizure of the region, following the Battle of Plassey. India witnessed famines at regular intervals thereafter and the most devastating ones were in 1783-84, 1791-92, 1837-38, 1860-61, 1876-78, 1896-97, and 1899-1900. Over 30 million Indians are estimated to have died during famines from the late-1700s to the mid-1900s. Add to this another 3 million people who perished during the 1943 Bengal famine. It is in this context that the scientific agricultural research works and contributions of Dr MS Swaminathan stand out. Of course, he was duly supported by the political class and also received administrative support in alleviating hunger and poverty and deaths from this inhuman situation. It is heartening to note that post our independence, notwithstanding the increase in our population, courtesy the contributions of scientists like Dr. Swaminathan and others who ushered in the Green Revolution in India, India has not faced any loss of lives even when we have faced deficit rainfalls and draughts. The Green Revolution changed Indian agriculture for good, transforming India from being a country with a begging bowl – Ship to Mouth existence under schemes like PL 480- to a net food exporter nation. And for this, we need to credit Dr M S Swaminathan - and all those who helped him - the man whose singular mission, to rid the nation of its hunger, helped India in reaching this stage.

The colossal loss of lives during the 1943 Bengal famine, just four years before we attained our Independence, and the past experience of India losing millions of lives due to famine, had created a sense of despair and frustration among some nay-sayers whether India would be able to survive independently, once the British leave the country. The first and major challenge before the nation would be to aim to achieve a balance between the human population and the production of food grains and other agricultural commodities, which could feed them. In order to alleviate hunger, India, post its independence, had to rely heavily on food aid to meet its population’s nutritional needs. Leading the food aid to India was the United States. The Public Law 480 (famously known as PL 480) scheme, commonly known as “Food for Peace,” marked a pivotal chapter in India’s history. This American initiative, established in 1954, aimed to provide food aid to countries in need, with India being a significant beneficiary of the PL 480. The import of wheat from the USA under the PL 480 scheme played a crucial role in shaping India’s food security, agricultural policies, and economic growth. India relied heavily on this scheme under which ship loads of excess wheat from US were exported by ship to India and this period was referred to as a period of ship to mouth existence. During this period, India was at the mercy of US for feeding a hungry nation, post our tryst with destiny. 

In just two decades after independence, by 1968, with efforts and leadership of Dr Swaminathan, the mood of the nation from despair and diffident gave way to one of optimism and self confidence in relation to our agricultural potential. The efforts of Swaminathan proved our farmers ability to adapt and adopt new technologies, a phenomenon, which was christened in that year as Green Revolution'. This agricultural transformation brought about courtesy Swaminathan, helped India to strengthen its national sovereignty in many areas, including the capacity to remain nonaligned in our foreign policy. 

Dr MS Swaminathan led the mission towards attaining the Green Revolution and in this mission, he was admirably supported by the Nobel Peace Prize winner, Norman Borlaug, Union Agriculture Minister, C Subramaniam and other agriculture scientists. The unsung heroes of our Green Revolution were the Indian farmers, who listened and believed in the counsel of Indian scientists like Dr Swaminathan to paved the way for the Green Revolution, which transformed independent India. One of the most significant achievements of Dr. Swaminathan was the development of high-yielding dwarf variety wheat and rice crops that played a crucial role in increasing food production in India during the 1960s and 70s. 

The importance of the green revolution that India attained in the late sixties and seventies for nations sovereignty can be seen in one of the interviews of Dr Swaminathan. He said “Smt. Indira Gandhi was very supportive of the Indian agriculture initiatives so that she could let go of the PL 480 monkey on her back. Under Indira Gandhi’s leadership, India shifted its focus from heavy dependence on PL 480 food aid from US to a more self-reliant approach in agriculture. The successful achievement of the Green Revolution was instrumental in empowering India to become a more self-sufficient food producer and reducing its reliance on external assistance.

Interestingly, it was Swaminathan who knew that the dramatic increase in food production as a result of what was called the green revolution would most likely tempt farmers and others to exploit the benefits of modern agricultural practices and transform the much-appreciated green revolution in to a Greed Revolution, that would harm agriculture irreversibly. Swaminathan advocated a practice which would help the green revolution becoming an ever-green revolution with sustainable development in agriculture.

 Dr. Swaminathan’s dedication to agriculture extended beyond just increasing yields. He emphasized the importance of sustainable and environmentally friendly farming practices. His concept of “evergreen revolution” focused on ensuring that agricultural growth was not achieved at the expense of the environment but rather in harmony with it. Throughout his career, he worked tirelessly to promote agricultural research and development, advocating for the needs of small and marginalized farmers. Beyond his scientific achievements, Dr. Swaminathan was a strong advocate for social justice and rural development. He recognized that improving the condition of farmers was essential for the overall development of India. His work extended to areas such as land reforms, rural education, and women’s empowerment, all of which were integral to his vision of a prosperous and equitable society.  MS Swaminathan was a strong advocate for sustainability in agriculture, recognizing its crucial role in addressing contemporary challenges. He and the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) have made significant contributions to advancing sustainable agriculture.

Dr. MS Swaminathan’s legacy goes beyond the numerous awards and honours he received, which include Indias highest civilian honours, the Bharat Ratna, which he received posthumously in 2024. He was also the recipient of the first World Food Prize Award, Albert Einstein World Science Award, Krishi Ratna award dedicated to the cause of agricultural sciences. Born on August, 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, Swaminathan’s work laid the foundation for modern agricultural practices in India and inspired countless scientists, policymakers, and farmers to continue the quest for food security and sustainability. His passion for agriculture and his deep empathy for the farming community made him a revered figure in India and an inspiration to people around the world. As we remember Dr. MS Swaminathan, we acknowledge the indelible mark he has left on the world. His legacy will continue to guide us as we navigate the challenges of feeding a growing global population while safeguarding our environment.

Dr. Swaminathan’s life serves as a testament to the power of science, compassion, and dedication in shaping a better future for all. Today, as we celebrate the birth centenary of the legendary MS Swaminathan, let us hope and pray that his contributions to agriculture and humanity be celebrated and remembered for generations to come and may he continue to inspire millions of young Indians to contribute to nation-building.

The NASA-ISRO Partnership and the NISAR Mission

The NASA-ISRO Partnership and the NISAR Mission: A Leap Forward in Earth Observation and Global Resilience.

Yesterday evening, the skies above Sriharikota witnessed a triumphant moment as the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully launched the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite aboard the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Mark II F16 rocket with a precision that placed the satellite within 3 kilometers of its intended orbit—far surpassing the 20-kilometer margin. This magnificent launch marked a significant milestone in the storied partnership between ISRO and NASA, two space agencies representing the world’s largest and oldest democracies.

The successful launch of the GSLV Mark II rocket and the placement of NISAR satellite in its intended orbit, not only restored ISRO’s reputation after recent setbacks with the PSLV-C61/EOS-09 and NVS-02 missions but also reaffirmed the belief of ISRO founders in harvesting the applications of space for the benefit of humankind, more particularly Indians. It also strengthens the enduring collaboration between India and US that traces its roots to the visionary efforts of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, Dr. Homi Bhabha, and their contemporaries in ISRO and NASA in the 1960s and 1970s. The NISAR mission, a $1.5 billion endeavor, is poised to revolutionize Earth observation with its dual-frequency radar imaging, offering unprecedented insights into natural processes and aiding global efforts in disaster mitigation, climate monitoring, and sustainable development, which are now of extreme importance to the global community. Over the next three months, as NISAR transitions from deployment to full operational capability, it will usher in a new era of space applications, echoing the transformative impact of ISRO’s Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) program of 1975.

The Deployment Process of NISAR: A Three-Month Journey to Full Functionality

The successful launch of NISAR on July 30, 2025, marked the beginning of a meticulously planned deployment and commissioning process, expected to span approximately 90 days. This phase is critical to ensuring that the satellite, equipped with NASA’s L-band and ISRO’s S-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems, becomes fully operational and ready to deliver high-resolution, all-weather, day-and-night data. The deployment process can be broken down into several sub-phases, each designed to prepare the satellite for its ambitious scientific objectives.

Launch and Initial Orbit Stabilization (Days 1–10)

Following its precise injection into a 743-kilometer Sun-synchronous polar orbit, NISAR’s immediate post-launch phase involves stabilizing the spacecraft and confirming its health. Mission controllers from ISRO’s Telemetry Tracking and Command Network in Bengaluru and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) have already confirmed full signal acquisition, indicating that the satellite is functioning as expected. During this period, the satellite’s solar arrays are deployed to power its systems, and initial checks are conducted on the spacecraft’s mainframe elements, including its attitude control systems, thermal regulation, and communication subsystems. These checks ensure that NISAR is correctly oriented and stable in its dawn-to-dusk orbit, which allows it to maintain consistent solar illumination for power generation.

Antenna Deployment (Days 10–20)

A critical milestone in NISAR’s deployment is the unfurling of its 12-meter mesh reflector antenna, the largest radar antenna ever deployed in space. Mounted on a 9-meter deployable boom, this antenna is essential for the satellite’s dual-frequency SAR operations. The deployment process, scheduled to begin around the 10th day post-launch, is a complex, multi-stage operation that requires precise coordination to extend the boom and unfurl the gold-plated mesh reflector, which resembles a giant beach umbrella. This step is crucial for enabling NISAR’s SweepSAR technology, which allows the satellite to image a 242-kilometer swath with 5–10-meter resolution. Engineers at ISRO and NASA will monitor the deployment closely, ensuring that the antenna is correctly positioned and structurally sound.

Commissioning and Instrument Calibration (Days 20–90)

The commissioning phase, spanning the first 90 days, is dedicated to preparing NISAR for its science operations. This phase is divided into sub-phases, including initial engineering checks, payload activation, and instrument calibration. The L-band (24 cm wavelength) and S-band (9 cm wavelength) radar systems, provided by NASA and ISRO respectively, will undergo rigorous testing to ensure they operate harmoniously. Calibration will involve the use of ground-based corner reflectors, such as those hosted by the National Centre of Geodesy at IIT-Kanpur and IIT-Patna, to fine-tune the radar’s accuracy during the in-orbit checkout phase. These reflectors help validate the satellite’s ability to detect minute surface deformations as small as a centimeter. Additionally, JPL’s engineering payload and instrument checkout will confirm the functionality of the high-rate communication subsystem, GPS receivers, solid-state recorder, and payload data subsystem. By the end of this phase, expected around late October 2025, NISAR will be ready to commence its primary science mission, systematically mapping Earth’s land and ice surfaces every 12 days.

The Legacy of ISRO-NASA Collaboration: From SITE to NISAR

The NISAR mission is a testament to the deep and enduring partnership between ISRO and NASA, a collaboration that began in the 1960s under the leadership of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the founding father of India’s space program, and Dr. Homi Bhabha, a pioneer in India’s scientific community. Their vision for leveraging space technology for societal benefit laid the groundwork for one of ISRO’s most transformative initiatives: the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) of 1975. This program, executed under the leadership of Prof. Satish Dhawan and with contributions from Dr. E.V. Chitnis, who recently celebrated his 100th birthday, used NASA’s ATS-6 satellite to broadcast educational and health programs to 2,400 villages across India. The SITE program, often hailed as the “TV revolution,” brought knowledge on agriculture, health, and education to remote communities, demonstrating the power of space technology to bridge developmental gaps.

The NISAR mission builds on this legacy of international cooperation and societal impact. Unlike SITE, which relied on a borrowed satellite, NISAR is a true 50/50 partnership, with NASA contributing the L-band radar, radar reflector antenna, and critical subsystems, while ISRO provides the S-band radar, spacecraft bus, and launch services via the GSLV-F16. This collaboration, forged across 13 time zones and a decade of effort, showcases the technical and diplomatic synergy between two spacefaring nations. The mission’s open-data policy, which will make NISAR’s data publicly accessible within 1–2 days of observation and in near real-time for disaster response, echoes the democratizing spirit of SITE, ensuring that the benefits of advanced Earth observation reach developing nations and global communities.

NISAR’s Global Impact: Revolutionizing Disaster Mitigation and Beyond

Once fully operational in late October 2025, NISAR will transform how the world monitors and responds to natural processes and hazards. Its dual-frequency SAR, capable of penetrating vegetation (L-band) and detecting surface changes (S-band), will provide high-resolution, all-weather imagery, making it a game-changer in several domains:

Disaster Management and Mitigation

NISAR’s ability to detect surface deformations as small as a centimeter will enable early warning systems for natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. For instance, by monitoring fault lines, NISAR can identify areas of slow movement or locked faults, providing insights into potential seismic risks. Its all-weather imaging capability ensures that data remains available during cloud cover or darkness, critical for assessing flood zones or storm impacts. The satellite’s near real-time data will empower disaster response teams to act swiftly, potentially saving lives and reducing economic losses. For example, in the aftermath of the magnitude-8.8 earthquake off Russia’s Far East coast on July 30, 2025, NISAR’s data could have aided in mapping affected areas, even under adverse weather conditions.

Climate Monitoring and Environmental Stewardship

NISAR will provide critical data on climate change impacts, particularly in the cryosphere. Its left-facing instruments will study the Antarctic ice sheet, tracking melting and growth patterns to refine models of sea-level rise. The satellite will also monitor glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice, contributing to a better understanding of the carbon cycle and climate dynamics. By mapping wetlands and forests, NISAR will assess ecosystem disturbances and support biodiversity conservation efforts.

Agriculture and Resource Management

NISAR’s data will enhance agricultural productivity by monitoring soil moisture, crop growth, and land use changes. Farmers and policymakers can use this information to optimize irrigation, assess crop health, and plan sustainable agricultural practices. The satellite’s ability to map surface water resources will also aid in water management, particularly in water-scarce regions.

Infrastructure and Urban Planning

By detecting subtle land movements, NISAR will help assess the integrity of critical infrastructure such as levees, dams, and aqueducts. This capability is vital for preventing failures that could lead to catastrophic consequences. Urban planners can use NISAR’s data to monitor ground subsidence and ensure resilient city development.

Global Accessibility and Societal Benefits

NISAR’s open-data policy will democratize access to high-resolution Earth observation data, benefiting developing nations that lack advanced satellite systems. This accessibility will support global research, policy-making, and disaster preparedness, aligning with India’s vision of being a “Vishwa Bandhu” (global partner) as articulated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Union Minister Jitendra Singh.

A Beacon of Hope Amidst Global Challenges

The successful launch of NISAR comes at a time of geopolitical and economic uncertainty, notably with the announcement of 25% tariffs on India by U.S. President Donald Trump. Amid this gloom, the NISAR mission stands as a symbol of hope, showcasing the power of collaboration between the world’s oldest and largest democracies. The mission’s success underscores the resilience of the U.S.-India partnership, which has weathered challenges to deliver cutting-edge science for global benefit. As ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan noted, NISAR will generate a “tremendous amount of data” daily, serving decision-makers, scientists, and disaster managers worldwide. This echoes the vision of Dr. Sarabhai, who saw space as a tool for uniting humanity through shared knowledge and progress.

Conclusion

The NISAR mission, launched on July 30, 2025, marks a historic milestone in the ISRO-NASA partnership, building on the legacy of pioneers like Dr. Sarabhai, Dr. Bhabha, Prof. Dhawan, and Dr. Chitnis. Over the next three months, as NISAR completes its deployment and commissioning phases, it will transition into a powerful tool for observing Earth’s complex processes. By providing high-resolution, all-weather data, NISAR will revolutionize disaster mitigation, climate monitoring, agriculture, and infrastructure management, benefiting not only India and the United States but also the global community. As the satellite begins beaming images in late October 2025, it will carry forward the spirit of the 1975 SITE program, using space technology to address humanity’s most pressing challenges. In an era of global uncertainties, NISAR stands as a testament to what two democracies can achieve when united by a shared commitment to science and the collective good.