110 Years On: Remembering Henry Moseley — The Brilliant Scientist Lost to War

 

 

War is the single most idiosyncratic, disgusting beastly human greed for conquest, which if not controlled can lead to disastrous consequences as evidenced in the two World Wars. One of those millions of soldiers who made the supreme sacrifice in service of their motherland, during the World War I, was the genetically gifted genius scientist, Henry Moseley.

Today, 10 August, 2025, marks 110 years since the death of one of science’s brightest young stars — Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley. On this day in 1915, at just 27 years old, Moseley was killed by a sniper’s bullet in the trenches of Gallipoli during the First World War. His life, though brief, left an indelible mark on modern science — and his death stands as a poignant reminder of war casualties. Among the tens of millions of WWI casualties - Indian soldiers included - the ‘single most costly death of the war’ - in the words of Isaac Asimov - was that of a genetically gifted genius scientist, Henry Moseley.

Moseley’s contributions (Moseley’s Law) in the development of the modern periodic table is now legendary. In his untimely death aged 27, not just England but the whole of humanity was robbed of Moseley’s genius scientific contributions. His death is all the more poignant for what he might have achieved, had it not been for the WW1. In just 40 months of his scientific research career, Moseley laid out the basis for the modern periodic table, predicted the elements that would fill in the gaps and showed that x-rays could be a supreme analytical tool.

Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley was born on 23 November 1887 in Weymouth, Dorset, into a distinguished lineage of scientists and scholars. His father, Henry Nottidge Moseley (1844–1891), was a celebrated naturalist who participated in the HMS Challenger expedition (1872–1876), authored Notes of a Naturalist on the Challenger, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1879. Henry Nottidge himself was the son of a notable mathematician, Harry Moseley. On his mother’s side, Henry Moseley’s maternal grandfather was John Gwyn Jeffreys, a prominent biologist and conchologist, reinforcing a familial culture steeped in natural science. This intellectual heritage provided young Henry with early exposure to inquiry, field observations, and scholarly rigour. Harry, as a child, exhibited great interest in science and with his sister, painstakingly surveyed surrounding countryside to catalogue as much of the native flora and fauna as he could find. His childhood interest in science clearly foretold what great future of scientific research lies ahead.

 Education and Early Scientific Work

Moseley excelled academically in his school. A King's Scholarship led him to Eton, where he distinguished himself in mathematics and physics, before enrolling at Trinity College, Oxford in 1906, earning his BA in 1910. Following graduation, he joined Ernest Rutherford's laboratory at Manchester as a demonstrator and researcher. Rutherford’s lab was a “nursery of genius,” fostering future Nobel laureates. Under Rutherford's mentorship, Moseley explored radioactivity and then turned his focus to the nature of X-rays.

The Scientific Breakthrough: Moseley’s Law & the Modern Periodic Table

Since Mendeleev’s time, the Periodic Table (1869) relied on the concept of atomic weight. Mendeleev had examined the chemical properties of each element, and grouped those with similar properties together. However, in a few notable cases – such as that of argon and potassium – Mendeleev had to break the sequence of atomic weight to keep similar properties in the same groups. These ‘pair reversals’ raised questions on the principle of using atomic weight as the basis of the periodic table. It was not until the arrival of Moseley on the scientific scene that this problem was scientifically and rationally solved. 

Between 1913 and 1914, Moseley published pioneering papers titled The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements in Philosophical Magazine. He employed X-ray spectroscopy to map characteristic X-ray frequencies across elements, discovering a linear relation between the square root of frequency and atomic number—a relationship now known as Moseley’s law. This provided the first empirical basis for ordering the periodic table by atomic number, which revealed gaps hinting at undiscovered elements, and resolved uncertainties such as rare-earth element placement.

Moseley law proved (what Bohr and others had suspected) that the frequency of x-rays is proportional to the atomic charge. The elements could now be ordered according to atomic number and the mystery of the ‘pair reversals’ was solved thus leading to the “Modern Periodic Table”.  the basis of which is based on the atomic number and not the atomic weight. This paved the way for seeing the gaps in the periodic table, where elements of a certain atomic number were missing. Peers immediately recognized the import of this discovery. Robert Millikan deemed Moseley’s work “one of the dozen most brilliant … in the history of science,” and it became central to early atomic models. In the process Moseley had laid the groundwork for a vast treasure hunt, which were to be discovered much later by the chemists after more than 30 years of searching for the missing elements his method had predicted.

Enlistment of Moseley in WWI and Death at Gallipoli

With the outbreak of World War, I, despite urging from his advisor Rutherford to remain in research, Moseley enlisted and joined the Royal Engineers. It was on 10 August 1915, as a Second Lieutenant and signals officer, he was killed by a sniper’s bullet in the battle of Gallipoli, while sending a message on 10 August 1915—just shy of his 28th birthday.

Moseley was touring Australia for a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, with his mother, when the news of the declaration of war reached Australia. Moseley felt it was his duty to join his soldier brethren’s to fight for his country. He did not heed to the advice of his mother, Henry Rutherford, friends and family who tried persuading him to change his mind. Unfortunately, Moseley’s patriotism prevailed and Moseley left Australia on a ship for San Francisco from where he caught the first train to New York. From there he went home to England and enlisted his name in the British Army and obtained a commission as lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was posted to Gallipoli to join ANZAC for the Gallipoli campaign.

It was during the curation of the “Cricket Connects: India Australia” exhibition that I had the honour to research about the historic connect that Indians shared with the Australians, particularly during the Battle of Gallipoli in WWI, where the Indian soldiers fought shoulder to shoulder as team ANZAC (Australia New Zealand Army Corps) with the Ottoman forces. It was during this research that I studied about involvement of Moseley in this battle. Second Lieutenant and signals officer Henry Moseley was part of ANZAC. While the battle itself was a defeat for the ANZAC, the ANZAC were relentless in their heroic gallantry and displayed incredible valour, courage and endurance in the most hostile environment in which this battle was fought.

The Battle of Sari Bair: August Offensive

The Gallipoli Campaign had devolved into a fierce stalemate by mid-1915. In early August, the Allies (Ottoman) launched the August Offensive—a collective push to seize the Sari Bair ridge and break the deadlock by capturing high ground suffocating ANZAC positions. Heavy fighting occurred from 6 August onward, including costly diversionary attacks at Lone Pine, The Nek, and Suvla Bay landings. Initial gains—such as temporary Allied holds on Chunuk Bair and Hill Q—were nullified by Ottoman counterattacks.

The Battle of Sari Bair ended in Ottoman victory and Allied withdrawal. Tactical errors, supply issues, miscommunication, and contested terrain undermined the offensive. At Hill 60, the final major assault from 21 to 29 August, Allied forces again failed to link Suvla and ANZAC positions, suffering heavy casualties throughout. It was during this fight that Moseley was killed on 10 August, 1915.

The archival record of Moseley’s short but luminous career—his notebooks, spectral plots, university correspondence, and battlefield telegrams—illustrate not just personal tragedy but the societal cost of war. His death triggered reflection in British scientific circles, prompting arguments that scientific talent should be shielded from frontline service. This influenced later policies in WWII, where scientists were mobilized for strategic innovation (e.g., radar, medicine, code-breaking) rather than combat.

Henry G. J. Moseley’s lineage, work, and death embody both profound creative promise and wartime sacrifice. His early demise at Gallipoli, during one of WWI’s defining failures, serves as a poignant “never again”—a plea that scientific genius should be protected, not lost. Moseley did not die in vain; his legacy endures in the atomic number, the modern periodic table, and our collective memory of what was—and what peace must preserve.

 

Eightieth Year of the Nagasaki Bombing - Never Again

 

Hiroshima Nagasaki : Never Again

Today, August 9, 2025, marks the 80th year of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, a sombre milestone in human history. On August 9, 1945, three days after the “Little Boy” uranium bomb devastated the city of Hiroshima, the United States dropped their second atom bomb, a plutonium-based atomic bomb, codenamed “Fat Man,” on Nagasaki. This catastrophic event, alongside the Hiroshima bombing, hastened the end of World War II but left an indelible scar on humanity, prompting a global resolve to prevent such a tragedy from recurring. As we commemorate this anniversary, it is time to reflect on the details of the Nagasaki bombing, the specifics of the “Fat Man” bomb, the experiences of those involved, and the broader implications for the world order.

The Nagasaki Bombing and the “Fat Man”

On August 9, 1945, at 11:02 a.m., the B-29 bomber Bockscar, piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney, dropped the “Fat Man” bomb over Nagasaki. The bomb, a plutonium-239 implosion-type device, had a yield of approximately 21 kilotons of TNT, slightly more powerful than the 15-kiloton “Little Boy” used on Hiroshima. Unlike Hiroshima, where the bomb detonated almost directly above the city centre, “Fat Man” exploded 1,650 feet above the Urakami Valley, a secondary target after cloud cover obscured the primary target, Kokura. The hilly terrain of Nagasaki partially contained the blast, but the devastation was still immense.

The “Fat Man” bomb was 10.7 feet long, 5 feet in diameter, and weighed around 9210 Kg. Its complex implosion design, developed under the Manhattan Project, required precise engineering to compress the plutonium core and trigger a nuclear chain reaction. The bomb’s detonation instantly killed an estimated 35,000–40,000 people, with total deaths reaching approximately 74,000 by the end of 1945 due to injuries, burns, and radiation poisoning. The Urakami Valley, an industrial area was obliterated, including the Urakami Cathedral, a symbol of Nagasaki’s Christian community.

Nagasaki’s unique geography and the bomb’s off-target detonation mitigated some of the destruction compared to Hiroshima’s flatter terrain. However, the human toll was staggering. Survivors, known as hibakusha, faced severe burns, radiation sickness, and long-term health effects like cancer and leukemia. Artifacts from the bombing—melted glass, charred clothing, and stopped clocks—bear witness to the instantaneous horror, much like those preserved from Hiroshima.

Japan’s Surrender

The Nagasaki bombing, combined with Hiroshima’s destruction and the Soviet Union’s declaration of war on Japan on August 8, 1945, compelled Japan’s leadership to surrender. On August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan’s capitulation in a radio broadcast, the first time most Japanese citizens heard his voice. The formal surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri, officially ending World War II. The dual atomic bombings demonstrated the unprecedented destructive power of nuclear weapons, forcing Japan to confront the reality of total defeat and influencing its decision to surrender unconditionally.

The Pilot: Charles W. Sweeney

Major Charles W. Sweeney, a 25-year-old pilot, commanded Bockscar during the Nagasaki mission. Unlike Colonel Paul Tibbets, who piloted the Enola Gay for the Hiroshima bombing and expressed no regret, Sweeney’s reflections reveal a more complex emotional response. In his 1997 memoir, War’s End: An Eyewitness Account of America’s Last Atomic Mission, Sweeney described the mission as a military necessity to end the war and save lives by avoiding a prolonged invasion of Japan. However, he also expressed unease about the human cost. Sweeney noted the challenges of the Nagasaki mission, including mechanical issues with Bockscar and the need to divert to the secondary target due to weather conditions. After the war, he defended the bombings but acknowledged the haunting images of destruction, particularly the suffering of civilians. Sweeney’s experience underscores the moral weight carried by those who executed such missions, even as they believed in their strategic necessity.

J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project

J. Robert Oppenheimer, the scientific director of the Manhattan Project, oversaw the development of both “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” at Los Alamos, New Mexico. The Nagasaki bombing, as the second use of a nuclear weapon, deepened Oppenheimer’s growing unease about the destructive power he had helped unleash. After witnessing the first successful test of a plutonium bomb (the “Gadget”) at Trinity in July 1945, Oppenheimer famously quoted the Bhagavad Gita: “Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.” The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki solidified his concerns about the ethical implications of nuclear weapons.

By 1947, Oppenheimer became an advocate for international control of nuclear arms, opposing the development of the more powerful hydrogen bomb. His vocal stance against nuclear proliferation led to his 1954 security clearance hearing, where he was accused of disloyalty during the McCarthy era, a fallout of his efforts to curb the nuclear arms race. The Nagasaki bombing, in particular, reinforced Oppenheimer’s belief that humanity must avoid future nuclear conflicts, shaping his later career as a cautionary voice in the nuclear age.

The Fallout on the World Order

The Nagasaki bombing, alongside Hiroshima, fundamentally altered the global order. The demonstrated power of nuclear weapons ushered in the Cold War, defined by a nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The bombings established the U.S. as the preeminent global superpower but also introduced a new era of existential fear. The creation of NATO, the Warsaw Pact, and subsequent nuclear proliferation by countries like the Soviet Union (1949), the UK (1952), and others stemmed from the strategic lessons of 1945.

The bombings also spurred international efforts to control nuclear weapons. The United Nations, founded in 1945, prioritized non-proliferation, leading to treaties like the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968 and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996. However, India refused to sign these treaties citing its national strategic interests. The bombings’ legacy continues to shape global security policies, with nuclear arsenals serving as deterrents while raising the specter of mutually assured destruction.

Reflections on the 80th Anniversary

Reflecting on the 80th anniversary of the Nagasaki bombing, the lessons remain stark. The “Hiroshima-Nagasaki Never Again” exhibition, which I coordinated in 1998 at the National Science Centre, Delhi, vividly captured the horrors of nuclear devastation. The Nagasaki panels, like those for Hiroshima, displayed melted artefacts, survivor testimonies, and images of the Urakami Valley’s destruction, reinforcing the human cost of nuclear warfare. Keeping the national policy in mind, I decided to exclude panels critical of India’s stance on the NPT and CTBT from the exhibition. During the 75^th year of Hiroshima bombing, I had posted a detailed blog where I have narrated in detail about the exhibition and the National Science Centre, featuring on the editorial page. This exhibition helped me in understanding the delicate balance that we have to play as curators, balancing the decision between national interests and global disarmament efforts.

Nagasaki, like Hiroshima, has rebuilt itself into a vibrant, modern city, yet the scars of 1945 endure. The Nagasaki Peace Park and Atomic Bomb Museum stand as reminders of the tragedy, urging humanity to prioritize peace. The experiences of Sweeney and Oppenheimer highlight the personal and ethical dilemmas faced by those involved in the bombings, while the global fallout reshaped international relations.

As we mark this 80th anniversary, let us renew our commitment to ensuring that nuclear energy serves humanity’s progress—through medicine, energy, and research—rather than its destruction. May Nagasaki’s suffering, alongside Hiroshima’s, remain a solemn warning: never again.

Images : Courtesy Wikipaedia and National Science Centre Delhi

 

Birth Centenary of Dr MS Swaminathan (7 August 2025): Father of the Green Revolution

 

7 August 2025 marks the birth centenary of Dr. Mankombu Sambasivan Swaminathan - popularly referred to as MS Swaminathan – an agriculture scientist of international eminence, who is befittingly referred to as the father of the Green Revolution in India. His exemplary works were marked by his unwavering commitment to addressing and solving the ‘ship to mouth’ existential challenges of the Independent India which was suffering from hunger and poverty. Unfortunately, Dr Swaminathan passed away in his native town, Chennai, on 28 September 2023, less than two years shy of his birth centenary. Dr Swaminathan lived a complete life dedicated to helping the nation, more particularly the farming and agriculture community. It is therefore no wonder that while paying tribute to Swaminathan on his demise, the Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi, called him the “Kisan Vigyanik”, a farmer scientist.

 To understand the impact of the contributions of Dr. Swaminathan, it is pertinent to look at the lives lost due to starvation in the 1943 Bengal famine. An estimated 3 million people lost their lives during the infamous Bengal famine, which is attributed to the insensitivity of Winston Churchill, his policy and his administration. Things were no different in the 18^th and 19th centuries either, when we were under the colonial rule. In the famine that struck South India in 1877 millions of lives were lost. Records reveal that in the districts of Bellary, Kurnool, and Cuddapah, the loss of lives from this famine - in one year - was reported to be between 21 to 27 percent of the population of these districts. This was also true for other districts in the South. At the end of 1876, according to British maintained records, Salem District had a population of 2,129,850 people. In a report that highlighted the impact of the 1877 famine, it says “On the 14th of March, 1878, the population of the district of Salem was reduced to 1,559,876”. More than one-fourth of the people – nearly six lac people - perished due to the 1877 famine. A similar number of loss of lives were reported from the districts of Mysore.

There are records that suggest that famine struck India from almost the beginning of British colonial rule. In 1770, over one million people died of starvation in Bengal, just 13 years after Robert Clive’s seizure of the region, following the Battle of Plassey. India witnessed famines at regular intervals thereafter and the most devastating ones were in 1783-84, 1791-92, 1837-38, 1860-61, 1876-78, 1896-97, and 1899-1900. Over 30 million Indians are estimated to have died during famines from the late-1700s to the mid-1900s. Add to this another 3 million people who perished during the 1943 Bengal famine. It is in this context that the scientific agricultural research works and contributions of Dr MS Swaminathan stand out. Of course, he was duly supported by the political class and also received administrative support in alleviating hunger and poverty and deaths from this inhuman situation. It is heartening to note that post our independence, notwithstanding the increase in our population, courtesy the contributions of scientists like Dr. Swaminathan and others who ushered in the Green Revolution in India, India has not faced any loss of lives even when we have faced deficit rainfalls and draughts. The Green Revolution changed Indian agriculture for good, transforming India from being a country with a begging bowl – Ship to Mouth existence under schemes like PL 480- to a net food exporter nation. And for this, we need to credit Dr M S Swaminathan - and all those who helped him - the man whose singular mission, to rid the nation of its hunger, helped India in reaching this stage.

The colossal loss of lives during the 1943 Bengal famine, just four years before we attained our Independence, and the past experience of India losing millions of lives due to famine, had created a sense of despair and frustration among some nay-sayers whether India would be able to survive independently, once the British leave the country. The first and major challenge before the nation would be to aim to achieve a balance between the human population and the production of food grains and other agricultural commodities, which could feed them. In order to alleviate hunger, India, post its independence, had to rely heavily on food aid to meet its population’s nutritional needs. Leading the food aid to India was the United States. The Public Law 480 (famously known as PL 480) scheme, commonly known as “Food for Peace,” marked a pivotal chapter in India’s history. This American initiative, established in 1954, aimed to provide food aid to countries in need, with India being a significant beneficiary of the PL 480. The import of wheat from the USA under the PL 480 scheme played a crucial role in shaping India’s food security, agricultural policies, and economic growth. India relied heavily on this scheme under which ship loads of excess wheat from US were exported by ship to India and this period was referred to as a period of ship to mouth existence. During this period, India was at the mercy of US for feeding a hungry nation, post our tryst with destiny. 

In just two decades after independence, by 1968, with efforts and leadership of Dr Swaminathan, the mood of the nation from despair and diffident gave way to one of optimism and self confidence in relation to our agricultural potential. The efforts of Swaminathan proved our farmers ability to adapt and adopt new technologies, a phenomenon, which was christened in that year as Green Revolution'. This agricultural transformation brought about courtesy Swaminathan, helped India to strengthen its national sovereignty in many areas, including the capacity to remain nonaligned in our foreign policy. 

Dr MS Swaminathan led the mission towards attaining the Green Revolution and in this mission, he was admirably supported by the Nobel Peace Prize winner, Norman Borlaug, Union Agriculture Minister, C Subramaniam and other agriculture scientists. The unsung heroes of our Green Revolution were the Indian farmers, who listened and believed in the counsel of Indian scientists like Dr Swaminathan to paved the way for the Green Revolution, which transformed independent India. One of the most significant achievements of Dr. Swaminathan was the development of high-yielding dwarf variety wheat and rice crops that played a crucial role in increasing food production in India during the 1960s and 70s. 

The importance of the green revolution that India attained in the late sixties and seventies for nations sovereignty can be seen in one of the interviews of Dr Swaminathan. He said “Smt. Indira Gandhi was very supportive of the Indian agriculture initiatives so that she could let go of the PL 480 monkey on her back. Under Indira Gandhi’s leadership, India shifted its focus from heavy dependence on PL 480 food aid from US to a more self-reliant approach in agriculture. The successful achievement of the Green Revolution was instrumental in empowering India to become a more self-sufficient food producer and reducing its reliance on external assistance.

Interestingly, it was Swaminathan who knew that the dramatic increase in food production as a result of what was called the green revolution would most likely tempt farmers and others to exploit the benefits of modern agricultural practices and transform the much-appreciated green revolution in to a Greed Revolution, that would harm agriculture irreversibly. Swaminathan advocated a practice which would help the green revolution becoming an ever-green revolution with sustainable development in agriculture.

 Dr. Swaminathan’s dedication to agriculture extended beyond just increasing yields. He emphasized the importance of sustainable and environmentally friendly farming practices. His concept of “evergreen revolution” focused on ensuring that agricultural growth was not achieved at the expense of the environment but rather in harmony with it. Throughout his career, he worked tirelessly to promote agricultural research and development, advocating for the needs of small and marginalized farmers. Beyond his scientific achievements, Dr. Swaminathan was a strong advocate for social justice and rural development. He recognized that improving the condition of farmers was essential for the overall development of India. His work extended to areas such as land reforms, rural education, and women’s empowerment, all of which were integral to his vision of a prosperous and equitable society.  MS Swaminathan was a strong advocate for sustainability in agriculture, recognizing its crucial role in addressing contemporary challenges. He and the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) have made significant contributions to advancing sustainable agriculture.

Dr. MS Swaminathan’s legacy goes beyond the numerous awards and honours he received, which include Indias highest civilian honours, the Bharat Ratna, which he received posthumously in 2024. He was also the recipient of the first World Food Prize Award, Albert Einstein World Science Award, Krishi Ratna award dedicated to the cause of agricultural sciences. Born on August, 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, Swaminathan’s work laid the foundation for modern agricultural practices in India and inspired countless scientists, policymakers, and farmers to continue the quest for food security and sustainability. His passion for agriculture and his deep empathy for the farming community made him a revered figure in India and an inspiration to people around the world. As we remember Dr. MS Swaminathan, we acknowledge the indelible mark he has left on the world. His legacy will continue to guide us as we navigate the challenges of feeding a growing global population while safeguarding our environment.

Dr. Swaminathan’s life serves as a testament to the power of science, compassion, and dedication in shaping a better future for all. Today, as we celebrate the birth centenary of the legendary MS Swaminathan, let us hope and pray that his contributions to agriculture and humanity be celebrated and remembered for generations to come and may he continue to inspire millions of young Indians to contribute to nation-building.